THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


International  (Jftnuatitm  Series 

EDITED    BY 

WILLIAM  T.  HAEEIS,  A.M.,  LL.D. 


VOLUME  XV I. 


EDITED  BY  W.  T.  HARRIS. 

IT  is  proposed  to  publish,  under  the  above  title,  a  library  for  teachers 
and  school  managers,  and  text-books  for  normal  classes.  The  aim  will 
be  to  provide  works  of  a  useful  practical  character  in  the  broadest  sense. 
The  following  conspectus  will  show  the  ground  to  be  covered  by  the  series: 

I. — History  of  Education.  (A.)  Original  systems  as  ex- 
pounded by  their  founders.  (B.)  Critical  histories  which  set  forth  the 
customs  of  the  past  and  point  out  their  advantages  and  defects,  explain- 
ing the  grounds  of  their  adoption,  and  also  of  their  final  disuse. 

II. — Educational  Criticism.  (A.)  The  noteworthy  arraign- 
ments which  educational  reformers  have  put  forth  against  existing  sys- 
tems :  these  compose  the  classics  of  pedagogy.  (B.)  The  critical  histories 
above  mentioned. 

III.— Systematic  Treatises  on  the  Theory  of  Edu- 
cation. (A.)  Works  written  from  the  historical  standpoint;  these, 
for  the  most  part,  show  a  tendency  to  justify  the  traditional  course  of 
study  and  to  defend  the  prevailing  methods  of  instruction.  (B.)  Works 
written  from  critical  standpoints,  and  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  revolu- 
tionary in  their  tendency. 

IV. — The  Art  Of  Education.  (A.)  Works  on  instruction 
and  discipline,  and  the  practical  details  of  the  school-room.  (B.)  Works 
on  the  organization  and  supervision  of  schools. 

Practical  insight  into  the  educational  methods  in  vogue  can  not  be 
attained  without  a  knowledge  of  the  process  by  which  they  have  come  to 
be  established.  For  this  reason  it  is  proposed  to  give  special  prominence 
to  the  history  of  the  systems  that  have  prevailed. 

Again,  since  history  is  incompetent  to  furnish  the  ideal  of  the  future, 
it  is  necessary  to  devote  large  space  to  works  of  educational  criticism. 
Criticism  is  the  purifying  process  by  which  ideals  are  rendered  clear  and 
potent,  so  that  progress  becomes  possible. 

History  and  criticism  combined  make  possible  a  theory  of  the  whole. 
For,  with  an  ideal  toward  which  the  entire  movement  tends,  and  an  ac- 
count of  the  phases  that  have  appeared  in  time,  the  connected  develop- 
ment of  the  whole  can  be  shown,  and  all  united  into  one  system. 

Lastly,  after  the  science,  comes  the  practice.  The  art  of  education  is 
treated  in  special  works  devoted  to  the  devices  and  technical  details  use- 
ful in  the  school-room. 

It  is  believed  that  the  teacher  does  not  need  authority  so  much  as  in- 
sight in  matters  of  education.  When  he  understands  the  theory  of  edu- 
cation and  the  history  of  its  growth,  and  has  matured  his  own  point 
of  view  by  careful  study  of  the  critical  literature  of  education,  then  he  is 
competent  to  select  or  invent  such  practical  devices  as  are  best  adapted 
to  his  own  wants. 

The  series  will  contain  works  from  European  as  well  as  American 
authors,  and  will  be  under  the  editorship  of  W.  T.  HARRIS,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 


Vol.  I.  The  Philosophy  of  Education.    By  JOHANN  KARL  FRIKD- 

RICII    EOSEXKRANZ.       $1.50. 

Vol.  II.  A  History  of  Education.  By  Professor  F.  V.  N.  PAINTER, 
of  Eoanoke,  Virginia.  $1.60. 

Vol.  III.  The    Rise    and    Early   Constitution    of    Universities. 

With  a  Survey  of  Mediaeval  Education.  By  S.  S.  LAURIE,  LL.  D., 
Professor  of  the  Institutes  and  History  of  Education  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  $1.50. 

Vol.  IV.  The  Ventilation    and  Warming  of  School  Buildings. 

By  GILBERT  B.  MORRISON,  Teacher  of  Physics  and  Chemistry  in  Kan- 
sas City  High  School.  Y5  cents. 

Vol.  V.  The  Education  of  Man.  By  FRIEDRICH  FROEBEL.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German  and  annotated  by  W.  N.  HAILMANN,  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Schools  at  La  Porte,  Indiana.  $1.50. 

Vol.  VI.  Elementary  Psychology  and  Education.  By  JOSEPH 
BALDWIN,  Principal  of  the  Sam  Houston  State  Normal  School,  Hunts- 
villc,  Texas.  $1.50. 

Vol.  VII.  The  Senses  and  the  Will.  Observations  concerning  the 
Mental  Development  of  the  Human  Being  in  the  First  Years  of  JLife. 
By  W.  PREYER,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Jena.  Translated  from 
the  original  German,  by  11.  W.  BROWN,  Teacher  in  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Worcester,  Mass.  Part  I  of  THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD.  $1.50. 

Vol.  VIII.  Memory.  What  it  is  and  how  to  improve  it.  By  DAVID 
KAY,  F.  R.  G.  S.  $1.50. 

Vol.  IX.  The  Development  of  the  Intellect.  Observations  con- 
cerning the  Mental  Development  of  the  Human  Being  in  the  First 
Years  of  Life.  By  W.  PREYER,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Jena. 
Translated  from  the  original  German,  by  H.  W.  BROWN,  Teacher  in 
the  State  Normal  School  at  Worcester,,  Mass.  Part  II  of  THE  MIND 
OF  THE  GUILD.  $1.50. 

Vol.  X.  How  to  Study  Geography.  By  FRANCIS  W.  PARKER. 
Prepared  for  the  Professional  Training  Class  of  the  Cook  County  Nor- 
mal School.  $1.50. 

Vol.  XI.  Education  in  the  United  States.  Its  History  from  the 
Earliest  Settlements.  By  RICHARD  G.  BOONE,  A.  M.,  Professor  of 
Pedagogy  in  Indiana  University.  $1.50. 

Vol.  XII.  European  Schools.  Or  what  I  saw  in  the  Schools  of  Ger- 
many, France,  Austria,  and  Switzerland.  By  L.  E.  KLEMM,  Ph.,D., 
Author  of  "  Chips  from  a  Teacher's  Workshop,"  and  numerous  school- 
books.  $2.00. 

Vol.  XIII.  Practical  Hints  for  the  Teachers  of  Public  Schools. 

By  GKORQE  UOWLAND,  Superintendent  of  the  Chicago  Schools.     $1.00. 

Vol.  XIV.  Pestalozzi  :  His  Life  and  Work.  By  ROGER  DK  GUIMPS. 
Authorized  translation  from  the  second  French  edition,  by  J.  RUSSELL, 
B.  A.,  Assistant  Master  in  University  College  School,  London.  With 
an  Introduction  by  Rev.  R.  II.  QUICK,  M.  A. 

Vol.  XV.  School  Supervision.     By  J.  L.  PIOKARD,  LL.  D. 


INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

IN  EUROPE 
STATfiNORMALSCHOOL, 

LOS 


BT 

HELENE  LANGE 


TRANSLATED  AND  ACCOMPANIED  BY  COMPARATIVE  STATISTICS 

BT  L.  R.  KLEMM,  PH.  D. 


NEW    YORK 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

1890 


COPTBIGHT,  1890, 

Br  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


THE  battle  for  the  liigher  education  of  women 
has  been  fought  in  this  country,  but  we  can  not  yet 
say  that  it  has  been  fought  out.  Up  to  the  genera- 
tion of  men  now  living  the  question  had  not  been 
agitated.  The  few  instances  of  institutions  attempt- 
ing collegiate  instruction  of  women,  and  the  still 
fewer  experimenting  with  co-education  in  colleges, 
were  not  accepted  as  forerunners  of  a  movement 
likely  to  become  general.  The  majority  of  public 
high  sehools  throughout  the  country  thirty  years  ago 
and  the  normal  schools  were  testing  by  co-education 
the  relative  ability  of  girls  to  pursue  secondary 
studies  in  the  same  classes  with  boys.  The  result 
is  well  known.  The  girls  proved  their  capability  to 
perform  the  same  intellectual  tasks  as  boys.  What 
they  lacked  at  first  in  the  qualities  of  originality 
and  assimilative  power  they  made  up  in  memory 
and  delicacy  of  appreciation.  Many  girls  excelled 
the  average  boy  even  in  originality.  Alertness  and 
versatility  were  manifested  from  the  first — the  well- 
known  discriminations  which  were  urged  by  Dr. 
Clarke  many  years  ago  against  what  he  called 


vi      HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

"  identical  co-education."  He  described  the  female 
characteristics  as  versatility  and  periodicity,  while 
the  male  sex  possessed  persistence  and  strength.  It 
was  thought  that  these  distinctions  rendered  the 
education  of  the  sexes  together  in  the  same  classes 
undesirable  and  impracticable.  Experience  has  not, 
however,  confirmed  the  theory.  The  differences  of 
mind,  on  the  whole,  when  brought  to  bear  on  the 
subjects  studied  in  the  college  or  university,  tend 
rather  to  help  than  to  hinder  the  progress  of  both 
sexes.  Each  party  gains  something  from  the  other 
one's  views,  and,  although  the  profit  of  higher  study 
is  not  precisely  the  same  for  women  as  for  men, 
there  is  ample  profit  for  each.  Hence  co-education 
in  college  work  makes  progress  continually,  and  the 
higher  education  of  women  in  one  of  the  two  modes 
— in  separate  institutions  or  in  co-eductffffig  ones — 
is  become  quite  a  matter  of  course. 

Whatever  we  are  accustomed  to  seems  to  have 
the  ground  all  to  itself  as  against  a  newly  proposed 
innovation.  The  unusual  appears  absurd.  But  a 
generation  of  people  who  have  lived  through  more 
than  one  radical  change  of  custom  gets  submissive  to 
destiny  and  hears  of  new  social  schemes  with  com- 
posure. It  does  not  dare  to  trust  any  longer  its 
sense  of  the  absurd,  having  learned  that  manners 
and  customs  strange  to  us  always  seem  absurd,  and 
that  what  we  practice  as  the  most  natural  and  proper 
thing  in  the  world  would  have  seemed  to  our  grand- 
parents the  height  of  the  ridiculous. 

Immediate  likes  and  dislikes,  based  on  taste  or 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  vii 

habit,  are  therefore  set  aside  instinctively  by  us,  and 
we  endeavor  to  judge  impartially  the  new  order  pro- 
posed, and  decide  its  claims  on  rational  grounds. 

What  are  the  grounds  for  this  change  of  opinion 
on  the  subject  of  the  higher  education  of  women  ? 
Has  it  always  been  a  desideratum  under  all  stages 
of  civilization,  or  is  it  only  a  new  thing  incident  to 
a  new  order  of  human  development  and  just  now 
become  possible  ?  Or  is  it  perhaps  an  incident  to 
some  passing  phase  of  historical  growth,  and  destined 
to  disappear  as  suddenly  as  it  arose  ? 

The  question  of  education  has  reference  to  voca- 
tion and  destiny,  for  it  is  a  process  of  preparation 
for  an  end.  The  education  of  woman  involves  the 
theory  of  the  life  sphere  of  woman.  Again,  educa- 
tion must  be  of  two  kinds — general,  fitting  each  in- 
dividual for  his  common  destiny  with  all,  giving 
him  participation  with  all  mankind  in  the  heritage 
of  human  experience  and  wisdom  that  has  accumu- 
lated ;  special,  as  fitting  each  individual  for  the  par- 
ticular calling  he  shall  occupy. 

A  study  of  social  and  national  development  will, 
I  think,  make  clear  the  grounds  for  customs  that 
have  prevailed  in  female  education,  and  prove  con- 
clusively that  the  new  social  conditions  of  the  pres- 
ent and  future  demand  higher  education  for  woman. 

In  the  first  place,  we  must  note  the  fact  that  the 
education  of  the  people  as  people  is  itself  quite  a  mod- 
ern thing  in  history.  The  victory  of  productive  indus- 
try over  nature  by  the  aid  of  machinery  is  itself  both 
cause  and  effect  of  democracy.  In  the  primitive 


viii    HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

conditions  of  society  man  is  not  able  to  provide  for 
food,  clothing,  shelter,  and  culture  except  by  the 
formation  of  rigid  castes.  When  natural  science 
has  come  and  invention  has  secured  the  co-operation 
of  the  physical  forces  of  nature  so  as  to  emancipate 
man  from  drudgery  to  some  degree  then  begins  the 
abolition  of  caste,  not  by  the  degradation  of  the 
higher  classes,  but  by  the  elevation  of  the  lower  into 
higher  castes. 

It  is  this  process  which  characterizes  our  present 
civilization.  Education  is  its  most  important  word, 
because  in  this  is  found  the  means  of  elevating  the 
individual  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  caste. 

"With  the  emancipation  of  the  industrial  classes, 
we  have  arrived  at  the  new  question  of  the  emanci- 
pation of  women  so  far  as  sex  has  produced  caste 
limitations  in  the  past.  Let  us  examine  these  ideas 
more  in  detail. 

There  are  three  epochs  of  historic  growth  or 
social  evolution  which  must  be  studied  in  order  to 
understand  the  necessity  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  that  has  asserted  itself  in  this  age. 

I.  First,  there,  is  the  savage  state  of  man,  in 
which  the  two  sexes  fall  into  an  antithesis  whose  ex- 
tremes are  drudge  and  warrior.  The  education  of 
woman  in  this  period  consists  in  acquiring  a  knowl- 
edge of  a  few  arts  and  dexterities,  including  the  prep- 
aration of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  and  the  care 
of  the  family.  The  man,  on  the  other  hand,  gives 
his  whole  attention  to  the  war  and  the  chase. 
Hunting  is,  in  fact,  the  only  one  of  the  civil  occu- 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


IX 


pations  which  is  a  training  for  war.  The  border- 
land of  the  savage  tribe  is  so  near  the  center  of  his 
territory,  and  his  diplomacy  is  so  insufficient  to 
manage  the  interests  of  peace  with  surrounding 
tribes  that  he  can  not  sleep  in  security  a  single  night. 
He  must  be  always  on  the  alert,  practicing  the  arts 
of  war  and  ready  by  night  and  by  day  to  repel  at- 
tack. The  savage  man  is  defender  and  law-giver, 
the  savage  woman  brings  up  the  family  and  attends 
to  the  industries. 

II.  The  Division  of  Labor. — The  incorporation 
of  tribes  into  nations  brings  about  the  second  stage 
of  society — that  in  which  man  is  relieved  from  mili- 
tary duty  to  a  great  extent.     His  border-land  is  re- 
moved to  a  distant  frontier,  and  soldiery  becomes 
one  of  the  special  vocations  which  a  few  persons 
engage  in.     The  great  majority  of  men  learn  the 
arts  of  peace,  and  division  of  labor  begins.    Woman 
now  leaves  the  sphere  of  the  arts  and  trades  wherein 
most  division  of  labor  exists,  and  retires  within  the 
family,  working  at  the  final  processes  of  preparation 
for  immediate  consumption — such  as  cooking,  sew- 
ing, mending,  and  the  innumerable  arts  that  go  un- 
der the  name  of  "  housework  "  and  the  care  of  help- 
less children  or  helpless  aged. 

III.  The  Age  of  Machinery. — The  era  of  pro- 
ductive industry  has  two  distinct  epochs.     In  the 
first  there  is  such  specialization   of  industry  that 
each  laborer  tends  to  become  a  mere  hand,  perform- 
ing a  merely  mechanical  result  requiring  a  minimum 
of  directive  intelligence  in  its  performance.     In  the 


x        HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

second  epoch,  labor-saving  machinery  takes  the  place 
of  the  human  hand,  and  the  individual  laborer  as- 
cends to  the  higher  vocation  of  director  or  mana- 
ger of  a  machine.  He  uses  intelligence,  works  with 
his  brain,  where  before  he  worked  with  his  muscles 
alone. 

In  the  first  epoch,  that  of  the  division  of  labor, 
there  prevails  a  tendency  toward  infinite  subdivision. 
Each  special  industry  is  divided  and  subdivided 
again  until  it  seems  as  though  purely  mechanical 
labor,  entirely  devoid  of  mental  effort,  would  finally 
be  reached.  With  each  step  toward  subdivision  and 
specialization  the  simplicity  of  the  labor  increases, 
and  it  finally  becomes  easy  to  invent  a  machine  pro- 
pelled by  the  blind  forces  of  nature  to  take  the  place 
of  the  human  machine.  The  mechanical  occupation 
of  the  man  is  now  gone,  and  he  has  left  for  him  the 
task  of  connecting  and  disconnecting  the  active 
power  (steam,  water,  electricity,  etc.)  with  the  ma- 
chine, and  of  directing  its  operation  upon  the  mate- 
rial to  be  elaborated. 

With  the  first  invented  machines,  only  the  phys- 
ical labor  requiring  the  most  brute  strength  or  me- 
chanical application  is  conquered,  and  transferred 
from  the  hand  to  the  machine.  A  great  deal  of 
hand  labor,  however,  still  remains  in  the  process  of 
directing  the  application  of  the  machine.  The  fur- 
ther progress  of  invention  adds  more  machinery 
to  still  further  emancipate  the  hand,  in  this  direc- 
tion and  application  of  machinery  to  the  material  to 
be  manufactured.  There  arises  a  constant  emanci- 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  x{ 

pation  of  the  individual  from  mere  manual  labor 
and  a  continual  change  of  vocations  from  those  re- 
quiring mechanical  skill  toward  those  requiring 
intellectual  versatility.  Not  physical  strength,  nor 
manual  skill  developed  through  the  long  years  of 
apprenticeship,  is  required  in  the  epoch  of  labor- 
saving  machinery.  The  time  required  for  appren- 
ticeship continually  shortens,  and  the  demand  for 
ready-educated  intelligence  grows  more  imperative. 
/  Even  in  our  day  and  generation,  early  as  it  is  in 
the  era  of  development  of  productive  industry  by 
labor-saving  machinery,  we  all  recognize  the  advan- 
tage which  the  versatility  of  educated  intelligence 
possesses  over  the  skill  of  the  mere  hand  laborer, 
acquired  through  a  seven  years'  apprenticeship  and 
a  score  of  years  of  journeymanship.  The  mere 
hand  laborer,  skillful  and  industrious  though  he  be, 
is  continually  thrown  ashore  on  the  strand  of  pauper- 
ism, because  his  occupation  is  gone.  A  newly  in- 
vented machine  now  performs  his  labor  at  so  small 
a  cost  to  society  that  the  human  machine,  in  compe- 
tition with  the  other,  can  not  earn  his  food  and 
clothing.  "What  is  left  for  the  individual  who  has 
survived  his  vocation  ?  He  must  enter  a  new  one. 
After  twenty  or  thirty  years  of  apprenticeship  and 
journeymanship  all  his  muscles  have  become  set  in 
the  direction  of  special  manipulations  required  in  his 
trade,  and  he  can  not  acquire  the  new  manipula- 
tions necessary  to  a  new  trade  with  the  same  facility 
of  adaptation  that  belonged  to  him  in  early  life. 
Moreover,  his  intellect,  unused  and  untrained,  does 


xii     HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

not  possess  the  versatility  and  directive  power  re- 
quired in  the  management  of  machines. 

Pauperism  seems  the  only  result.  Great  Britain, 
the  foremost  nation  in  mechanical  invention,  fur- 
nishes in  times  of  war  when  food  is  dear  aid  or 
entire  support  for  one  million  and  a  half  of  paupers. 
Of  its  men,  women,  and  children,  one  in  twenty  is  a 
pauper.  In  the  United  States,  the  only  rival  of 
Great  Britain  in  productive  industry,  pauperism  is 
held  in  check  to  a  greater  degree  through  school 
education  and  the  facilities  for  migration  to  unset- 
tled frontiers. 

Face  to  face  with  this  great  question  of  read- 
justment of  vocations,  stands  this  other  great  social 
question  of  the  determination  of  vocation  by  the 
distinction  of  sex. 

The  transition  of  civilization  from  the  stand- 
point of  thralldom  to  that  of  freedom  has  been 
rendered  possible  through  the  great  movement  in 
productive  industry  just  discussed.  The  immense 
increase  of  production  in  the  comforts  and  neces- 
sities of  life — food,  clothing,  and  shelter — has  lifted 
man  above  squalor  and  drudgery  to  satisfy  the  pangs 
of  hunger  and  cold.  Increasing  leisure  has  been 
given  for  the  culture  of  his  mind  and  spiritual  fac- 
ulties. In  consequence  of  this,  the  lower  and  lowest 
strata  of  society  have  risen  in  the  scale  of  educated 
intelligence.  Their  law-obeying  and  their  law-mak- 
ing powers  have  increased,  and  they  have  demanded 
and  received  a  representation  in  the  government. 

The  distinction  of  sex,  as  we  have  seen,  availed 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

during  the  epoch  of  the  division  of  labor  to  con- 
fine the  sphere  of  woman  to  the  family  and  to  give 
man  the  province  of  productive  industry.  Persistency 
is  the  type  in  the  field  of  the  division  of  labor.  Perio- 
dicity is  the  type  of  labor  in  the  family.  Repetition 
of  the  same  thing,  concentration  upon  one  thing,  is 
the  characteristic  of  labor  in  the  industries.  Diver- 
sity and  versatility  are  the  characteristics  of  the 
labor  in  the  family ;  engaged  this  hour  in  preparing 
the  breakfast  and  washing  the  dishes;  the  next 
making  the  beds  and  sweeping  the  rooms ;  the  next 
cleansing  and  mending  the  clothing ;  the  next  knit- 
ting or  weaving ;  the  next,  and  at  intervals  during 
the  whole  day,  attending  to  the  myriad  wants  of 
childhood. 

The  labor  within  the  family  does  not  admit  of 
division  of  labor,  although  it  is  diversified  and  in 
need  of  such  division.  The  woman  prepared  for 
the  life  of  the  family,  therefore,  needed  an  education 
which  gave  her  versatility,  while  the  man  needed  a 
training  for  concentration  upon  one  thing. 

Persistency  and  periodicity  have,  therefore,  been 
said  to  characterize  respectively  the  spheres  of  labor 
of  men  and  women.  "Within  the  family  endless 
change  from  one  occupation  to  one  totally  different, 
while  in  the  arts  and  trades,  the  sphere  of  men,  there 
has  reigned  persistence  and  mechanical  concentra- 
tion of  will  power.  Before  the  era  of  division  of 
labor  there  was  an  entirely  different  condition  of 
things.  In  the  savage  state,  as  above  shown,  when 
the  tribal  form  of  government  prevailed  and  the 


xiv    HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

center  of  a  state  or  tribal  jurisdiction  was  at  the 
most  a  day's  march  from  a  hostile  frontier,  man  gave 
his  whole  attention  to  defense  and  had  no  strength 
left  for  productive  industry.  He  faced  a  hostile 
power,  uncertain  and  indefinite,  and  was  obliged  to 
be  constantly  on  the  alert.  He  dissipated  his  force 
and  utterly  unfitted  himself  for  dealing  with  definite 
or  routine  tasks  and  prescribed  duties.  To  woman 
belonged  then  not  only  the  function  of  family  nurt- 
ure, but  also  the  business  of  providing  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter — the  sphere  of  productive  industry. 
Hunting  was  training  for  war,  and  too  intermittent 
and  dependent  upon  caprice  to  rank  as  a  vocation. 
It  would  seem  from  this,  that  in  the  savage  state  of 
society  woman  has  the  part  of  providing  for  what  is 
routine  and  requires  persistence ;  while  man  devel- 
ops solely  versatility  in  the  form  of  cunning  and 
intermittent  effort.  In  primeval  society,  woman, 
assisted  by  children  and  superannuated  men,  per- 
forms the  labor  of  the  family  and  civil  society.  In 
the  first  epoch  of  productive  industry  she  limits 
herself  to  the  sphere  of  the  family  more  and  more. 

In  the  epoch  of  labor-saving  machines  the  char- 
acteristic mental  faculty  of  versatility  that  belongs  to 
woman  creates  a  louder  and  louder  call  for  her  en- 
trance upon  the  sphere  of  productive  industry.  Not 
physical  force  but  alertness  of  intellect  being  needed 
in  the  industries,  woman  is  preferred  for  managing 
the  power  loom  and  the  making  of  Waltham  watches. 
In  the  last  and  highest  period  of  industrial  develop- 
ment, the  distinction  between  the  spheres  of  the 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  XV 

family  and  civil  society  or  productive  industry  is 
removed.  Woman  needs  and  receives  an  education 
in  the  sciences  and  arts  and  accomplishments  neces- 
sary to  man.  Besides  this,  the  labor-saving  machine 
takes  up  and  performs  one  after  the  other  each  of 
the  special  industries  that  formerly  belonged  to  the 
family,  and  thus  emancipates  woman  from  drudg- 
ery. Weaving,  knitting,  and  sewing  have,  for  the 
most  part,  been  left  to  labor-saving  machinery  ;  the 
other  occupations  in  the  preparation  of  food  and 
clothing  are  rapidly  taking  the  same  course.  The 
school,  itself,  already  become  a  vocation  established 
for  the  relief  of  the  family,  extends  its  ministrations 
through  the  kindergarten  and  such  instrumentalities 
for  the  further  relief  of  the  family. 

The  strictly  educational  influence  of  the  family 
is  called  nurture.  Parental  care  watches  over  the 
years  of  helplessness  and  slowly  trains  childhood 
into  the  forms  and  conventionalities  of  civilized  life. 
The  general  characteristic  of  nurture  is  the  fact  that 
physical  and  intellectual  maturity  devotes  itself  to 
the  wants  and  capacities  of  helpless  infancy,  and 
with  infinite  patience  draws  out  and  encourages  self- 
development  and  free  activity  in  the  child.  The 
treatment  due  to  the  mature  man  or  woman  would 
destroy  the  child.  The  fact  that  the  special  vocation 
of  woman,  in  so  far  as  determined  by  sex,  involves 
this  special  feature  of  nurture  furnishes  us  a  signifi- 
cant point  to  be  considered  in  the  discussion  of  this 
theme.  It  indicates  that,  as  government  comes  to  be 
less  a  matter  of  abstract  justice  and  more  a  matter 


xvi     HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

of  providing  for  the  people  that  which  will  enhance 
their  capacity  for  self -activity,  woman's  aid  will  be 
more  and  more  needed  in  political  affairs.  Educa- 
tion is  one  of  the  functions  that  appertains  to  this 
providing  for  what  will  further  the  self-activity  of 
its  citizens.  All  of  the  weaklings  of  the  community 
need  more  or  less  to  have  nurture  provided  for  them 
in  the  shape  of  educational  and  other  restraining  and 
directing  influences.  Woman  is  by  nature  adapted 
to  this  work,  and  will  find  a  very  important  field 
of  activity  in  this  phase  of  municipal  administra- 
tion. 

From  these  considerations  of  the  trend  of  social 
evolution  we  are  led  to  see  that  the  equal  education 
of  woman  with  man  is  certain  to  prevail  in  the 
future.  ' 

The  age  is  an  age  of  directive  power  rather  than 
of  drudgery,  and  directive  power  requires  not  mere 
persistency  but  also  versatility. 

In  this  series  of  educational  works  we  print  this 
somewhat  special  work  of  Miss  Helene  Lange  on 
the  higher  education  of  women  in  Europe  because 
of  its  interest  to  English-speaking  nations  which  have 
advanced  beyond  the  first  steps  and  engaged  act- 
ively in  establishing  institutions  of  various  character 
for  the  higher  education  of  women.  In  this  po- 
lemical work,  written  for  the  most  conservative 
people  in  Europe  in  this  matter  of  female  educa- 
tion, we  may  behold  reflected  as  in  a  mirror  the 
'entire  movement  in- all  countries,  and  see  all  of  its 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  xvii 

stages,  from  the  initiation  on  to  the  most  advanced 
line  of  progress,  in  one  picture. 

Dr.  Kleirnn,  the  translator,  has  completed  the 
survey  of  the  entire  field  by  his  admirable  con- 
spectuses in  his  introduction.  ' 

W.  T.  HAKKIS. 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  October,  1800. 


CONTENTS. 


PACE 

EDITOR'S  PREFACE v 

INTRODUCTION  BY  THE  TRANSLATOR xxi 

Chart  I.  Ratio  of  Female  Teachers  in  Elementary  Schools  xxiit 
"  II.  Ratio  of  Female  Students  in  Universities  .  xxiv 
"  III.  Ratio  of  Girls  in  Secondary  Schools  .  .  .  xxv 
"  IV.  Ratio  of  Mixed  Schools  (Coeducation)  .  xxvi 
List  of  Colleges  and  Universities  for  Women  .  .  xxix 
"  Other  Institutions  for  the  Superior  Instruction  of 

Women xxix 

"      Annexes  to  Male  Colleges  and  Universities   .       xxxiii 
"      Colleges  and  Universities  for  Both  Sexes       .       xxxiii 
Miss  H.  LANOE'S  VIEWS  ON  FEMALE  EDUCATION.     INTRO- 
DUCTION     1 

CHAPTER 

I.  EARLY  MOVEMENT  IN  ENGLAND 7 

II.  FIRST  FEMALE  COLLEGES  IN  ENGLAND       .        .        .24 

III.  WOMEN  AND  THE  MEDICAL  PROFESSION     .        .        .42- 

IV.  FEMALE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  IN  ENGLAND         .        .    61 
V.  MORAL  EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND  AND  GERMANY  .        .    81 

VI.  INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND  AND  GERMANY    98 
VII.  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE       ....  110 
VIII.  WHY  WOMEN  SHOULD  BE  ADMITTED  TO  UNIVERSITIES  .  120 
IX.  CAUSE  OF  THE  FAILURE  IN  GERMANY,     (a)  Adverse 
Circumstances;  (6)  Man's  Unwillingness  to  aid 
the  Cause ;  (e)  Woman's  Indifference  .        .        .  146 


INTRODUCTION    BY  THE  TRANSLATOR. 


THE  question  of  higher  female  education  is  not 
new  in  this  country,  and  to  some  it  may  seem  as 
though  it  had  lost  the  character  of  a  problem  with 
us.  While  it  is  true  that  nowhere  on  the  face  of 
the  earth  woman  occupies  so  elevated  a  position  as 
here;  that  nowhere  is  her  inborn  right  to  educa- 
tion more  readily  and  willingly  acknowledged  than 
here ;  that  nowhere  are  more  schools,  colleges,  and 
universities  open  to  woman  than  here ;  that  no- 
where has  woman  found  so  many  chances  for  em- 
ployment in  consequence  of  liberal  provisions  for 
her  education  ;  and  that  nowhere  has  the  maxim 
of  Diesterweg,  "  Education  is  liberation,"  been 
proved  more  conclusively  than  here,  it  can  not  be 
said  that  the  facts  concerning  woman's  higher  edu- 
cation are  as  well  known  as  is  desirable.  This  is 
shown  by  the  numerous  inquiries  sent  to  the  Bu- 
reau of  Education,  in  Washington,  concerning  the 
progress  made  in  this  and  other  countries.  To 
many  who  know  that  America  has  taken  the  lead 
in  this  question,  it  would  seem  superfluous  to  learn 
what  European  nations  think  and  do  in  regard  to 


xxii  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

it ;  but  the  frequency  of  the  inquiries  prove  an  ever 
growing  interest  in  the  matter.  Aside  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  always  interesting  to  see  what  others 
do,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  our  almost  in- 
sular seclusion  from  the  European  world  of  thought 
and  action  is  likely  to  make  us  exclusive.  Hence 
it  may  prove  instructive  to  learn  how  the  question, 
which  with  us  seems  nearly  solved,  is  agitating  the 
minds  of  European  educators  and  legislators.  Cast- 
ing about  for  suitable  material  to  submit  to  Ameri- 
can readers,  the  translator  came  into  possession  of 
a  little  book  written  by  Miss  Helene  Lange  *  which 
is  so  characteristic  an  expose  of  the  question  men- 
tioned, and  combines  with  a  historic  review  and 
vigorous  arguments  so  many  valuable  statements 
concerning  the  actual  facts  in  England,  France, 
Germany,  and  other  countries,  that  he  concluded 
to  render  it  in  English  without  alterations  and 
omissions  or  additions.  It  may  seem  as  though  the 
work  of  Helene  Lange  is  only  the  expression  of  one 
side,  but  the  frequent  mention  of  men  well  known 
as  educational  authorities  and  her  liberal  quotations 
from  male  writers  save  her  from  the  accusation  of 
partiality.  Hence  we  may  safely  "  submit  the  case 
to  the  jury."  The  accompanying  statistical  charts 
(I  to  IY)  are  offered  with  some  degree  of  confi- 
dence that  they  will  meet  the  demand  of  the  numer- 
ous inquiries.  A  few  explanations  seem  necessary, 
hence  they  follow  each  chart. 

*  Frauenbildung,    by  Helene    Lange.     Berlin,    1889.     L. 
Oehmigke's  Verlag. 


CHART  I. 
RATIO  OF  FEMALE  TEACHERS 

TO   WHOLE   NUMBEft  OF   TEACHERS   EMPLOYED. 


IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES, 

m  ta*s. 


58*.  WOMEN. 
+),  THE  RATIO  Of  WOMEN  IS  ESTIMATED  TO  BE.  \AJ%   IN  188S. 

This  chart  shows  the  Ratio  of  Female  Teachers  to  the  whole 
number  of  teachers  employed  in  the  public  schools  of  this  coun- 
try :  (a)  for  the  whole  country ;  (b)  for  the  cities  only.* 

The  ratio  for  England  was  found  by  taking  the  number  of 
female  teachers,  assistants,  and  pupil  teachers  in  all  the  schools 
of  England  and  Wales  receiving  state  aid  (see  official  report  for 
1888).  This  includes  only  elementary  schools.  Hence  it  does 
not,  as  in  the  ratio  for  our  country,  include  high  schools  and 
other  secondary  schools.  The  ratio  for  France  was  found  by 
footing  up  the  reports  of  the  different  department  inspectors  of 
France.  This  was  done  in  preference  to  using  the  annual  report 
of  the  Minister  of  Education  for  1886,  in  order  to  obtain  a  more 
recent  statement  of  facts.  The  ratio  of  female  teachers  in  Prus- 
sia was  obtained  from  the  official  report  of  1887,  the  latest  in- 
formation obtainable.  The  same  is  to  be  said  of  Austria,  Switz- 
erland, and  Italy. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  comparison  offered,  the  year  of 
which  the  statistics  were  taken  is  stated  in  each  case. 


*  See  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1887-'88,  pp. 
To  and  SCO. 


CHART  II. 
RATIO  OP  FEMALE  STUDENTS 

TO   WHOLE  NUMBER   OF   STUDENTS    PURSUING   SUPERIOR 
EDUCATION  IN   UNIVERSITIES    AND   COLLEGES. 


IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, J 

IN    18S8.  1 

IS  TOUNO'ATIONS 

COMPRISING          r 
IN  THE   U   8.  <  GROUPS  OF'RELATEO 


29.3?  WOMEN. 


IN  ENGLAND,.. 
IN  1987. 


IN  FRANCE,. 
IN  1887. 


ft   WOMEN.     'ESTIMATED 


IN  SWITZERLAND, 

IN  1889. 


e;r  »  JMEN^  92<<  KEN 

IN  ITALY,.. 


The  Ratio  of  Female  Students  to  the  whole  number  of  stu- 
dents pursuing  superior  education  (university  and  college  stu- 
dents) for  the  United  States  is  given  (1)  For  the  whole  country 
(excluding  all  preparatory  deparments) ;  (2)  For  institutions 
comprising  groups  of  related  faculties  nnd  colleger.  (See  An- 
nual Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1887-'88, 
pp.  582  and  624.)  For  England  an  estimate  of  Miss  H.  Lange 
(see  p.  65  of  this  book)  is  used;  no  definite  statement  has.  ever 
been  published.  For  France,  the  oiiicial  reports  do  not  give 
the  desired  information,  hence  an  estimate  is  given  which  is 
based  on  information  contained  in  The  Woman  Question,  by 
Theodore  Stanton.  In  Prussia,  the  annual  reports  mention  no 
female  students.  None  are  matriculated,  hence  no  degrees  are 
conferred  upon  women.  In  Austria,  women  are  permitted  to 
attend  some  lectures,  but  they  are  considered  private  students ; 
they  are  prohibited  from  matriculation  and  graduation.  Full 
and  accurate  information  concerning  Switzerland  was  obtained 
from  the  excellent  Jahrbuch,  of  Grob,  for  1887-'88.  The  ratio 
given  for  Italy  is  based  on  estimates  derived  from  sundry 
sources,  chiefly  educational  journals. 


IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES, 

PUBLIC  «  PRIVATE  IN»T. 

IN   1888. 
IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES 

PUBLIC  INST.ONLr, 

IN   1888. 


CHART  III. 
RATIO  OF  GIRLS 

IN    HIGH   AND   OTHER    SECONDARY   SCHOOLS. 


69.  \%  GIRLS. 


40. 9^  BOYS. 


ESTIMATED  AT  30*GIRLS. 


10/J  QIHL8. 


90*  BOYS. 


IN  ITALY, 

IN    1887. 


7i,~    BJVS. 


The  Ratio  of  ffirls  in  high  schools  or  other  secondary  schools 
given  for  the  United  States  is  taken  from  the  Annual  Report  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1887-'88.  It  is  given  (1)  for 
all  institutions,  public  and  private  schools ;  (2)  for  public  schools 
alone.  In  both  cases  it  exceeds  that  of  the  boys.  For  England 
it  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  correct  statement  in  regard  to  the 
number  of  pupils  in  secondary  schools,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
these  schools  are  not  under  governmental  supervision,  hence  the 
ratio  given  in  this  chart  is  to  be  taken  "  cum  grano  satis."'  It 
was  based  upon  statements  of  Miss  Lange,  The  Educational 
Times  (London),  Sir  Lyon  Playfair,  and  others.  For  France, 
Prussia,  Austria,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,  official  statements  were 
available.  It  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  however,  in  or- 
der to  arrive  at  a  proper  estimate  of  the  ratios  in  this  chart,  that 
many  institutions  in  this  country  classed  among  the  secondary 
schools  are  little  if  anything  more  than  elementary  schools ;  hence 
it  is  safe  to  think  that  the  ratio  given  for  the  United  States  is 
somewhat  exaggerated. 


CHART  IV. 

RATIO  OF  MIXED  SCHOOLS 
(CONTAINING  BOTH  BOYS  AND  GIRLS) 

OF   THE   TOTAL   NUMBER   OF   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS. 


IN-THE 
UNITED  STATES,-. 

IN  1888. 


96%  MIXED  SCHOOLS,  (ONLY  AN  ESTIMATE). 


UNITED  STATES,...)         THE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  HAVE  7J.6#  FEMALE  STUDENTS        I  AND  27. 4#  MALE  STU.  I 
IN   1888.  ' ' ' 


24. 1£  MIXED.  41.7?  QIRL8'  SCHOOLS.  34.2?  BOYS'  SCHOOLS. 


18.3*  MIXED.         80.9;*  GIRLS'  SCHOOLS.  41.8^  BOYS'  SCHOOLS. 


IN  SWITZERLAND,..1 
.IN   1887. 


IN  ITALY, 

IN   1887.. 


This  chart  is  intended  to  show  what  extent  co-education  of 
the  sexes  has  found.  The  ratios  of  mixed  schools  (schools  in 
which  both  sexes  are  taught  in  the  same  rooms)  are  those  for 
elementary  schools  only,  except  for  the  United  States,  where  the 
public  high  schools  are  included.  For  this  country,  however, 
only  an  estimate  could  be  given,  based  on  information  published 
by  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  1883  (Co-education  of  the  Sexes, 
Circular  of  Information,  No.  2).  The  most  diligent  research 
among  the  statistical  material  on  hand  has  not  sufficed  to  arrive 
at  an  accurate  statement.  The  same  may  be  said  of  England. 
But  the  official  reports  of  France,  Prussia,  Italy,  and  Austria 
were  very  explicit  and  accurate  concerning  this  point.  For 
Switzerland,  the  Jahrbuch  of  Grob  (1887)  furnished  the  neces- 
sary information. 

It  may  be  stated  here  that  the  statistics  of  Prussia  may  be 
taken  as  a  standard  of  measurement  for  Germany.  The  differ- 
ences between  Prussia  and  the  other  states  of  Germany  are  not 
great  enough  to  materially  alter  the  ratios  given  in  the  forego- 
ing four  charts. 


INTRODUCTION  BY  THE  TRANSLATOR,   xxvii 

After  this  general  and  graphic  presentation  of 
statistical  facts,  it  seems  desirable  to  state  briefly 
the  facilities  offered  in  this  country  for  the  higher 
education  of  women.  If  this  were  but  to  show  the 
great  difference  existing  between  the  Old  and  the 
New  World  in  the  appreciation  of  the  right  of 
woman  to  higher  education,  the  end  would  justify 
the  space  occupied.  But  it  is  chiefly  done  to  provex 
that  in  this  country  the  woman  question  as  relating 
to  education  is  scarcely  a  problem  any  longer.  We 
must  for  obvious  reasons  refrain  from  entering  into 
historical  statements ;  that  would  necessitate  lengthy 
biographical  presentations  of  the  lives  and  public 
efforts  of  several  noble  women,  such  as  Mrs.  Emma 
Willard,  Miss  Catherine  E.  Beecher,  Mary  Lyon, 
Miss  Grant,  and  others.  That,  of  course,  is  out  of 
the  question.  The  reader  is  kindly  referred  to 
Theodore  Stanton's  book  The  Woman  Question 
and  to  vol.  xi  of  this  series,  Boone's  Education  in 
the  United  States  (page  362  to  the  end),  which 
books  contain  many  valuable  details. 

The  latest  report  of  the  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  (that  of  1887-'88)  groups  under 
the  head  of  "superior  instruction"  all  institutions 
the  intent  and  purport  of  which  is  an  academic  and 
professional  education  (except  the  normal  schools), 
and  states  the  sum  total  of  these  institutions  to  be 
988,  the  number  of  their  professors  12,409,  and  the 
number  of  their  students  145,440,  itemized  as  fol- 
lows : 


xxviii  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 


No.  of 
schools. 

No.  of 
professors. 

No.  of 
students. 

Universities  and  colleges  of  arts  and 
sciences  

357 

4,834 

75,383 

Colleges  and  seminaries  for  women. 
Colleges  endowed  with  the  national 
land  grant  

207 
82 

2,581 
620 

25,318 
8,127 

Schools  of  science  not  so  endowed.  . 
Schools  of  theology  

30 
138 

348 
726 

7,976 
6,512 

Schools  of  law  

49 

293 

3,667 

Schools  of  medicine,  dentistry,  etc.  . 

175 

3,007 

18,513 

Totals  

988 

12,409 

145,446 

Provision  for  the  higher  education  of  women  is 
made  (a)  in  colleges  and  seminaries  exclusively  for 
women,  and  (&)  in  co-education  colleges.  The  en- 
tire attendance  of  young  women  in  the  several 
classes  of  institutions  for  1887-'88,  so  far  as  re- 
ported, was  as  follows : 

No.  of  students. 

Colleges  and  seminaries  for  women.  25,318 

Colleges  of  arts  and  sciences 16,428 

Colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  me- 
chanic arts  endowed  with  the 
national  land  grant 917 

Total..  .  42,663 


=  29#  of  the  num- 
ber of  students 
in  superior  in- 
stitutions. 


Of  357  colleges  of  liberal  arts,  21 7  admit  women ; 
of  32  independent  colleges  endowed  with  the  na- 
tional land  grant,  20  report  students  of  both  sexes. 
This  gives  a  total  of  237  co-education  colleges.  Later 
reports  may  show  still  larger  numbers. 

Nothing  seems  more  conclusive  than  a  perusal 
bf  the  following  lists,  of  which  it  may  be  expressly 
stated  that  the  number  of  students  mentioned  is  that 


INTRODUCTION  BY  THE  TRANSLATOR.  xxix 


of  the  collegiate  departments,  and  does  not  include 
the  students  in  the  preparatory  departments. 

I.  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  FOR  WOMEN. 

(Institutions  marked  thus  *  have  a  female  president.) 


NAME  AND  LOCATION. 

o 

V 

"5  fc 

Female 
professors. 

e 
^3  * 

°'l 

Date  of 
opening. 

2-d 

s 
o  ® 

Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass.*  

11 

7 
1 
1 
2 
1 
6 
14 
5 

13 
70 
5 
4 
15 

28 
5 
25 

312 
628 
38 
81 
59 
37 
299 
81 
314 

1875 
1875 
1868 

1835 

1865 
1885 
1837 

-54 
.  62 

Wellesley  College,  Wellesley,  Mass.*  

Wells  College,  Aurora,  N.  Y  

Elmira  College,  Elmira,  N.  Y  

Ingham  University,  Le  Roy,  N.  Y  

Rutgers  Female  College,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Vassar  College.  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y  

Bryn  Mawr  College,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.  

Mt.  Holyoke  College,  South  Hadley,  Mass.* 

"  This  table  includes  a  group  of  institutions  whose  admission 
requirements,  standards  of  instruction,  and  general  organiza- 
tion accord  with  those  that  have  long  been  characteristic  of 
colleges  of  liberal  arts.  Their  work  is  essentially  collegiate, 
in  which  respect  they  differ  from  the  older  seminaries  for  wo- 
men, which,  while  making  more  or  less  provision  for  the  dis- 
tinctive studies  of  the  college  curriculum,  are  schools  for  gen- 
eral instruction."  (Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
1887-'88.) 

II.  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  OF  WOMEN. 

(Those  marked  with  an  *  have  a  female  president  or  principal.) 
In  Alabama :  Athens  Female  College,  Union  Female  Col- 
lege, Huntsville  Female  College,  Huntsville  Female  Seminary, 
Judson  Female  Institute,  Marion  Female  Seminary,  Synodical 
Female  Institute,  Central  Femak  College,  Tuskaloosa  Female 
College,  Alabama  Conference  Female  College.  Total  number 
of  students:  543. 

In  California :  The  Ellis  College,  Mills  College,  Santa  Rosa 
Ladies'  College.    Total  number  of  students :  350. 
o 


XXX    HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

In  Connecticut:  Hartford  Female  Seminary.*  Number  of 
students:  50. 

In  Georgia:  Lucy  Cobb  Institute,*  Methodist  Female  Col- 
lege, Andrew  Female  College,  Dalton  Female  College,  Monroe 
Female  College,  Baptist  Seminary  for  Young  Ladies,  Griffin 
Female  College,  La  Grange  Female  College,  Southern  Female 
College,  Wesleyan  Female  College,  College  Temple,  Shorter  Col- 
lege, Young  Female  College.  Total  number  of  students  :  1,055. 

In  Illinois :  Seminary  of  the  Sacred  Heart,*  Almira  College, 
Illinois  Female  College,  Jacksonville  Female  Academy,  St. 
Mary's  School,  Chicago  Female  College,  Mt.  Carroll  Seminary,* 
Rockford  Seminary.*  Total  number  of  students :  488. 

In  Indiana :  De  Pauw  College  for  Young  Women.  Num- 
ber of  students :  31. 

In  Iowa :  Immaculate  Conception  Academy,*  Callahan  Col- 
lege. Total  number  of  students :  149. 

In  Kansas :  College  for  Young  Ladies,*  College  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  Bethany.  Total  number  of  students :  147. 

In  Kentucky :  Caldwell  College,*  Georgetown  Female  Semi- 
nary, Liberty  Female  College,  Daughters'  College,  Bethel  Fe- 
male College,  Hamilton  Female  College,  St.  Catherine's  Female 
Academy,*  Sayre  Female  Institute,  Hampton  College,  Louis- 
ville Female  College,  Millersburg  Female  College,  Mt.  Sterling 
Female  College,  Jessamine  Female  Institute,*  Kentucky  College 
for  Young  Ladies,  Logan  Female  College,  Science  Hill  School, 
Stuart's  Female  College,  Stanford  Female  College,  Cedar  Bluff 
Female  College.  Total  number  of  students :  1,127. 

In  Louisiana:  Silliman  Female  Collegiate  Institute,  Mans- 
field Female  College.  Total  number  of  students :  126. 

In  Maine :  Westbrook  Seminary  and  Female  College,  Wes- 
leyan Seminary  and  Female  College.  Total  number  of  stu- 
dents: 255. 

In  Maryland:  Baltimore  Academy  of  the  Visitation,*  Balti- 
more Female  College,  Cambridge  Female  Seminary,  Frederick 
Female  Seminary,  Lutherville  Seminary.  Total  number  of 
students:  363. 

In  Massachusetts :  Abbot  Academy,  Lasell  Seminary  for 
Young  Women,  Gannett  Institute,  Bradford  Academy,*  Wheat- 
on  Female  Seminary.  Total  number  of  students :  348. 


INTRODUCTION  BY  THE  TRANSLATOR.    Xxxi 

In  Michigan:  Michigan  Female  Seminary.*  Number  of 
students:  41. 

In  Minnesota :  Albert  Lea  College,  St.  Mary's  Hall,*  Bennett 
Seminary.*  Total  number  of  students :  229. 

In  Mississippi*.  Blue  Mountain  Female  College,  Whitworth 
Female  College,  Central  Female  Institute,  College  for  the  Edu- 
cation of  White  Girls,  Corinth  Female  College,*  Franklin  Fe- 
male College,*  East  Mississippi  Female  College,  Union  Female 
College,  Chickasaw  Female  College,  Port  Gibson  Female  Col- 
lege, Shuqualak  Female  College,  Stark ville  Female  Institute, 
Lea  Female  College.  Total  number  of  students :  954 

In  Missouri :  Christian  Female  College,  Stephens  Female 
College,  Howard  Female  College,  Fulton  Synodical  Female  Col- 
lege, Woodland  College,  St.  Louis  Seminary,  Baptist  Female 
College,  Central  Female  College,  Elizabeth  Aull  Female  Semi- 
nary, Hardin  College,  Lindenwood  Female  College,  Mary  Insti- 
tute, Ursuline  Academy.*  Total  number  of  students :  1,228. 

In  Nevada:  Bishop  Whitaker's  School  for  Girls.  Number 
of  students :  73. 

In  New  Hampshire :  Robinson  Female  Seminary,  Conference 
Seminary  and  Female  College,  Tilden  Seminary.  Total  number 
of  students :  348. 

In  New  Jersey:  Bordentown  Female  College,  St.  Mary's 
Hall,*  Freehold  Young  Ladies'  Seminary.*  Total  number  of 
students :  113. 

In  New  York:  Academies  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (3),*  St. 
Agnes  School,*  Brooklyn  Heights  Seminary,  Packer  Collegiate 
Institute,  Buffalo  Female  Academy,  Granger  Place  School,* 
Academy  of  ^Mount  St.  Vincent,*  Boarding  and  Day  Schools  for 
Young  Ladies  (2),*  D'Youville  Academy.*  Total  number  of 
students:  1,740. 

In  North  Carolina:  Asheville  Female  College,  Charlotte 
Female  Institute,  Greensborough  Female  College,  Davenport 
Female  College,  Baptist  Female  Institute,  Wesleyan  Female 
College,  Oxford  Female  Seminary,  Estey  Seminary,  Peace  In- 
stitute, St.  Mary's  School,  Statesville  Female  College,*  Thomas- 
ville  Female  College.  Total  number  of  students :  950. 

In  Ohio:  Bartholomew  English  and  Classical  School,  Cin- 
cinnati Wesleyan  College,  Mt.  Auburn  Young  Ladies'  Institute, 


xxxii   HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

Glendale  Female  College,  Granville  Female  College,  Shepardson 
College,*  Hillsborough  Female  College,  Oxford  Female  College, 
Western  Female  Seminary,*  Lake  Erie  Female  Seminary.* 
Total  number  of  students :  823. 

In  Oregon :  St.  Helen's  Hall.*    Number  of  students :  132. 

In  Pennsylvania :  Allentown  Female  College,  Moravian 
Seminary,  Blairsville  Ladies'  Seminary,  Wilson  College,  Board- 
ing and  Day  School,*  Brooke  Hall  Female  Seminary,  Ogontz 
School  for  Young  Ladies,*  Philadelphia  Seminary,*  Pittsburg 
Female  College,  Washington  Female  Seminary.*  Total  num- 
ber of  students :  823. 

In  South  Carolina:  Columbia  Female  College,  Due  West 
Female  College,*  Greenville  Female  College,  Walhalla  Female 
College.  Total  number  of  students :  410. 

In  Tennessee :  Brownsville  Female  College,  Wesleyan  Female 
College,  Columbian  Athenaeum,  Conference  Female  Institute, 
Cumberland  Female  College,  Soule  Female  College,  Nashville 
College  for  Young  Ladies,  St.  Cecilia  Academy,*  Seminary  for 
Young  Ladies,  Martin  Female  College,  Synodical  Female  Col- 
lege,* Shelbyville  Female  College,  Mary  Sharp  College.  Total 
number  of  students :  860. 

In  Texas :  Baylor  Female  College,  Nazareth  Academy,* 
Waco  Female  College.  Total  number  of  students :  328. 

In  Vermont:  Methodist  Female  College.  Number  of  stu- 
dents: 84. 

In  Virginia:  Martha  Washington  College,  Albemarle  Fe- 
male Institute,  Montgomery  Female  College,*  Danville  College 
for  Young  Ladies,  Roanoke  Female  College,  Hollin's  Institute, 
Marion  Female  College,  Norfolk  College  for  Young  Ladies, 
Southern  Female  College,  Staunton  Female  Seminary,  Virginia 
Female  Institute,*  Wesleyan  Female  Institute,  Fauquier  Insti- 
tute, Valley  Female  College.  Total  number  of  students :  727. 

In  West  Virginia:  Broaddus  College,  Parkersburg  Female 
Seminary,*  Wheeling  Female  College.  Total  number  of  stu- 
dents: 110. 

in  Wisconsin :  Wisconsin  Female  College.*  Milwaukee  Col- 
lege, St.  Clara  Academy.*  Total  number  of  students :  127. 


INTRODUCTION  BY  THE  TRANSLATOR,    xxxiii 

III.  ANNEXES  TO  MALE  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES. 

Harvard  University  Annex,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  103  female 
students;  Columbia  College  Annex,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  28  female 
students ;  Ladies'  Annex,  Southwestern  University,  Georgetown, 
Texas,  89  female  students. 

IV.  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  FOR  BOTH  SEXES. 

A.  Foundations  comprising  Groups  of  Related  Faculties. 

Columbian  University,  Washington,  D.  C.,  34  female  stu- 
dents ;  De  Pauw  University,  Greencastle,  Ind.,  260  female  stu- 
dents ;  Boston  University,  Boston,  Mass.,  256  female  students ; 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  139  female  students. 

B.  State  Universities  open  to  Both  Sexes. 

(The  numbers  in  parentheses  state  the  number  of  female  pupils  in  1887-'88.) 
The  State  universities  of  California  (54),  Colorado  (16),  Illi- 
nois (58),  Indiana  (69),  Iowa  (86),  Kansas  (55),  Michigan  (194), 
Minnesota  (95),  Mississippi  (6),  Missouri  (100),  Nebraska  (73), 
Nevada  (37),  Ohio  (28),  Oregon  (9),  Texas  (42),  Wisconsin  (104). 

C.  Other  Colleges  and  Seminaries  open  to  Women. 

(The  numbers  in  parentheses  are  the  number  of  female  students  in  the 
State.) 

In  Alabama :  Selma  University  (3). 

In  Arkansas :  Cane  Hill  College,  Little  Rock  University  and 
Philander  Smith  College  (15). 

In  California :  Pierce  Christian  College,  University  of  South- 
ern California,  Napa  College,  University  of  the  Pacific,  Pacific 
Methodist  College,  San  Joaquin  College,  Hesperian  College  (224). 

In  Colorado :  Colorado  College,  University  of  Denver  (17). 

In  District  of  Columbia :  Howard  University  (1). 

In  Georgia :  Bowdon  College  (37). 

In  Illinois :  Hedding  College,  Illinois  Wesleyan  University, 
Carthage  College,  Eureka  College,  Northwestern  University, 
Ewing  College,  Northern  Illinois  College,  Knox  College,  Lom- 
bard University,  Lake  Forest  University,  McKendree  College, 
Lincoln  University,  Monmouth  College,  Northwestern  College, 
Chaddock  College,  Augustana  College,  Shurtleff  College,  West- 
field  College,  Wheaton  College  (481). 


xxxiv  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

In  Indiana :  Franklin  College,  Hanover  College,  Hartsville 
College,  Butler  University,  Morris  Hill  College,  Earlham  Col- 
lege (162). 

In  Iowa'.  Amity  College,  Griswold  College,  Drake  Univer- 
sity, University  of  Des  Moines,  Parsons  College,  Upper  Iowa 
University,  Iowa  College,  Lenox  College,  Simpson  College,  Ger- 
man College,  Cornell  College,  Oskaloosa  College,  Penn  College, 
Central  University  of  Iowa,  Tabor  College,  Western  College 
(547). 

In  Kansas:  Baker  University,  College  of  Emporia,  High- 
land University,  Campbell  University,  Ottawa  University,  Kan- 
sas Wesleyan  University,  Washburn  College,  Garfield  Univer- 
sity (156). 

In  Kentucky :  Berea  College,  Eminence  College,  South  Ken- 
tucky College,  Murray  Institute  (240). 

In  Louisiana:  Keachie  College,  New  Orleans  University, 
Straight  University,  Tulane  University  (100). 

In  Maine :  Bates  College,  Colby  University  (54). 

In  Maryland:  Windsor  College,  West  Maryland  College 
(77). 

In  Michigan :  Albion  College,  Hillsdale  College,  Hope  Col- 
lege, Kalamazoo  College,  Olivet  College  (151). 

In  Minnesota :  Hamlin  University,  Carleton  College  (63). 

In  Mississippi :  Kavanaugh  College  (60). 

In  Missouri :  Pike  County  College,  Lewis  College,  Pritchett 
Institute,  Morrisville  College,  Washington  University,  Drury 
College,  Tarkio  College,  Central  Wesleyan  College,  Mary  Insti- 
tute, Washington  University  (289). 

In  Montana :  College  of  Montana  (14). 

In  Nebraska :  Nebraska  Central  College,  Doane  College, 
Gates  College  (126). 

In  New  Mexico :  University  of  New  Mexico  (50). 

In  New  York:  St.  Lawrence  University,  Syracuse  Univer- 
sity (195). 

In  North  Carolina :  Rutherford  College,  Livingston  College, 
Weaverville  College,  Shaw  University  (81). 

In  Ohio :  Buchtel  College,  Ohio  University,  Baldwin  Uni- 
versity, German  Wallace  College,  Calvin  College,  University  of 
Cincinnati,  Adelbert  College,  Belmont  College,  Ohio  Wesleyan 


INTRODUCTION  BY  THE  TRANSLATOR.    XXxv 

University,  Findlay  College,  Twin  Valley  College,  Denison 
University,  Hiram  College,  Mt.  Union  College,  Muskingum 
College,  Oberlin  College,  Rio  Grande  College,  Scio  College, 
Wittenberg  College,  Heidelberg  College  Urbana  University, 
Otterbein  University,  Wilmington  College,  University  of  Woos- 
ter,  Antioch  College  (1,039). 

In  Oregon :  Pacific  University,  McMinnville  College,  Willa- 
mette University  (18). 

In  Pennsylvania :  Lebanon  Valley  College,  Geneva  College, 
Dickinson  College,  Ursinus  College,  Thiel  College,  Grove  City 
College,  Bucknell  University,  Allegheny  College,  Central  Penn- 
sylvania College,  Westrainter  College,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Swarthinore  College  (328). 

In  Tennessee :  Grant  Memorial  University,  Chattanooga 
University,  Bethel  College,  Maryville  College,  Milligan  College, 
Central  Tennessee  College,  Fisk  University,  Greenville  and 
Tusculum  College  (72). 

In  Texas:  Wesleyan  College,  Salado  College,  Trinity  Uni- 
versity, Baylor  University  (157). 

In  Vermont :  University  of  Vermont,  Middlebury  College  (25). 

In  Washington :  University  of  Washington,  Whitman  Col- 
lege (28). 

In  West  Virginia :  West  Virginia  College  (1). 

In  Wisconsin:  Lawrence  University,  Galesville  University, 
Milton  College.  Ripon  College  (82). 

It  is  probable  that  among  the  names  of  institu- 
tions for  higher  education  in  the  foregoing  lists 
there  are  not  a  few  that  can  not  well  be  classed  with 
universities  and  colleges  as  these  terms  are  under- 
stood in  Europe,  but  the  writer  has  no  means  of 
ascertaining  their  rank  or  standing.  Even  if  all 
such  schools  are  eliminated  from  the  list,  the  num- 
ber of  those  who  deserve  to  remain  in  it  would  be 
most  gratifying  to  any  one  who  firmly  believes  in 
woman's  higher  education.  If  there  be  any  one 
who  does  not,  the  foregoing  pages  may  supply  in- 


xxxvi  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

formation  which  is  adapted  to  change  his  mind.  It 
is  sincerely  hoped  that  the  showing  made  on  the 
comparative  charts  will  aid  the  cause  here  and 

abroad. 

L.  R.  KLEMM. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  September,  1890. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF   WOMEN 
IN  EUROPE 


INTRODUCTION. 

IT  is  one  of  the  symptoms  of  our  time  that  all 
important  journals  and  magazines  open  their  col- 
umns for  discussions  of  the  "woman  question"; 
that  innumerable  pamphlets,  yes,  even  voluminous 
books,  are  written  to  bring  it  nearer  a  solution.  In 
all  civilized  nations  it  approaches  a  solution,  and 
lately  we  frequently  meet,  in  foreign  and  home 
journals,  the  statement  that  the  German  is  the  only 
and  last  great  nation  of  culture  which  leaves  its 
women  under  the  oppression  of  middle-age  fetters, 
keeping  closed  against  them  the  institutions  of  high- 
er learning — that  is,  the  requisites  of  every  higher 
professional  activity,  and  thus  effectually  preventing 
the  solution  of  the  burning  question,  which  is  only 
possible  through  intellectual  emancipation.  The 
absurdity  of  these  conditions  is  correctly  stated  by 
Mrs.  Kettler  when  she  says :  "  The  education  of  to- 


2     HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

day  retains  woman  in  a  state  of  minority  or  tute- 
lage. ...  A  cliild  is  a  minor,  hence  it  is  supported. 
The  woman  is  also  regarded  as  a  minor — hence  she 
must  support  herself.  The  cliild  is  asked  :  Are  you 
hungry  ?  Here  is  bread ;  eat.  The  woman  is  told  : 
If  you  are  hungr^,  earn  your  bread.  See,  up  yon- 
der are  many  loaves ;  if  you  reach  them,  you  may 
eat  &s  many  as  you  like ;  but  mind,  don't  use  that 
ladder  to  get  at  them — that's  made  for  men.  Per- 
haps a  loaf  will  fall  ere  long ;  only  have  patience. 
Perhaps  they'll  come  down  by  themselves ;  only  be 
patient."  * 

What  is  the  reason  the  German  woman  can  not 
obtain  what  the  woman  of  other  civilized  nations 
obtained  ?  Is  the  reason  to  be  looked  for  in  them- 
selves? Or  in  the  men?  Or  in  insurmountable 
exterior  obstacles  ?  Much  depends  upon  the  answer 
to  this  question ;  for  it  is  decisive  in  the  choice  of 
roads  to  be  traveled.  A  study  of  the  development 
of  the  woman  question  in  other  nations  perhaps  will 
give  us  a  clew.  Kindred  England  seems  best  suited 
to  such  consideration  and  study.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary to  determine  in  what  regard  the  movement  now 
so  happily  terminated  is  typical ;  while  the  special- 
ties traceable  to  national  peculiarities  and  obvious  in 

*  Woman's  Profession,  by  Mrs.  Kettler,  vol.  ii,  p.  16,  Janu- 
ary, 1888. 


DISCUSSION  TIMELY.  3 

specifically  English  institutions  must  not  be  made 
subjects  of  imitation.  But  that  which  the  English 
women  have  accomplished  recedes  behind  that  which 
women  have  accomplished ;  the  national  must  give 
precedence  to  the  international ;  for  the  woman 
question  is  an  international  problem.  Common  in- 
terests of  culture  unite  the  women  of  att  countries, 
and  it  is  a  beautiful  feature  of  the  movement  yet  so 
young  that  there  exists  between  the  women  of  dif- 
ferent, and  even  antagonistic,  nations,  a  mutual  ap- 
preciation not  always  found  among  men.  That  is 
the  reason  why  we  women  are  apt  to  learn  of  and 
from  each  other. 

I  will  preface  my  essay  by  stating  that  I  have 
been  warned  not  to  make  public  what  these  pages 
contain.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  argued  that  this  is 
not  a  time  favorable  to  women;  second,  it  is  ap- 
prehended that  a  cause  which  may  boast  of  having 
succeeded  in  England  is  likely  to  be  discredited  in 
Germany.  I  answer,  1,  that  I  can  not  see  how  the 
time  can  become  more  favorable  for  the  women 
by  patient  waiting  and  ominous  silence;  2,  that 
the  prejudices  of  the  multitude  and  non-thinking 
people — if  at  all  it  should  be  admitted  that  truth 
must  be  treated  diplomatically  —  possibly  might 
come  into  consideration  if  I  had  to  deal  with  the 
multitude ;  but  that  is  far  from  being  the  case. 


4     HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

The  present  book  is  offered  to  the  thinking 
men  and  women  of  the  nation ;  hence  the  ap- 
prehensions mentioned  are  superfluous.  I  there- 
fore enter  upon  my  subject  without  further  pref- 
atory remarks. 

About  the  present  English  girl's  and  woman's 
education  there  are  many  erroneous  opinions  in 
vogue  in  Germany.  We  have  perhaps  given  less 
attention  during  the  last  twenty  years  to  the  educa- 
tional efforts  of  foreign  nations  than  they  deserve, 
and  the  reforms  effected  there  seem  to  have  become 
known  scarcely  to  the  narrowest  professional  circles. 
Thus  we  hear  the  English  female  education  again 
and  again  denounced  as  below  par.  That  is  owing 
to  some  obvious  causes.  Twenty  years  ago,  for 
instance,  the  harshest  criticism  of  the  English 
girls'  schools  was  fully  justified  ;  they  simply 
could  not  be  worse.  He  who  was  in  England 
previous  to  1868  could  not  help  but  come  to  that 
conclusion.  Now,  knowing  how  an  opinion  once 
generally  adopted  remains  unchanged,  even  long 
after  it  has  lost  its  basis  of  fact,  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  even  to  this  day,  in  Germany, 
the  people  should  think  so  little  of  English  female 
education. 

Again,  the  experiences  made  here  and  there  with 
English  girls  in  German  boarding  schools  seem  to 


APPEARANCES  MISLEADING.  5 

have  given  weight  to  the  generally  accepted  opinion 
or  prejudice.  That  seems  an  argument  of  little 
weight.  It  is  well  known  that  a  people  can  only  be 
studied  in  its  own  native  country,  never  in  foreign 
countries,  where,  through  want  of  familiarity  with 
the  language  and  customs,  it  is  at  a  disadvantage. 
In  this  particular  case  there  are  other  considerations. 
1.  The  education  of  English  young  girls  is  through- 
out different  in  quality  from  that  of  German  young 
ladies.  They  possibly  have  knowledge  in  ancient 
languages  and  mathematics,  which  with  us  is  not 
considered  a  female  accomplishment,  while  they  are 
deficient  in  modern  languages,  literature,  and  his- 
tory, and  hence  rarely  fit  into  a  school  with  an 
orthodox  course  of  study.  2.  Moreover,  by  far  the 
greatest  number  of  young  English  women  frequent- 
ing German  boarding  schools  come  from  social 
strata  that  educate  their  girls  by  private  governesses. 
Hence  an  apparent  want  of  knowledge  in  these  few 
pupils  should  not  permit  us  to  argue  from  them 
upon  others,  or  all  others ;  and  we  should  certainly 
not  reject  English  higher  education  on  account  of 
the  few  specimens  whom  WTC  are  hardly  able  to 
judge. 

It  is  a  fact,  at  any  rate,  that  girls'  education,  and, 
indeed,  the  entire  female  education  in  England  has 
been  subjected  to  a  change  so  radical  that  it  can 


6     HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

scarcely  be  conceived.  The  most  interesting  part  of 
it  is  the  manner  in  which  this  change  was  brought 
about.  The  following  chapters  may  attempt  to 
show  that. 


CHAPTER  I. 

EARLY  MOVEMENT  IN  ENGLAND. 

THE  first  traces  of  the  woman's  movement  in 
England  may  be  found  as  early  as  the  last  century. 
In  1792  Mary  Wollstonecraft  published  her  Vindi- 
cation of  the  Rights  of  Women ;  during  our  century 
Sydney  Smith,  and  above  all,  John  Stuart  Mill,  with 
the  sharpest  of  intellectual  weapons,  continued  their 
energetic  attempts  in  assisting  woman  in  the  acqui- 
sition of  her  rights — rights  that  had  been  suppressed 
since  the  beginning  of  the  world.  The  political  side 
of  the  movement  shall  not  here  be  touched.  Toward 
the  middle  of  this  century  the  attempt  was  made  to 
give  woman  a  share  of  the  highest  culture  of  her 
time,  and  to  enable  her  to  contribute  to  its  elevation 
and  extension.  It  was  a  beginning  of  a  social  revo- 
lution at  the  time  when  Europe  was  convulsed  with 
the  throes  of  political  revolution.  People  began 
to  see  that  the  culture  of  woman  means  the  culture 
of  the  people.  Hence  influential  persons  tried  to 
elevate  the  education  of  girls,  and  since  it  is  but 


8     HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

logical  that  if  the  schools  should  be  improved  the 
teachers  must  first  be  improved — that  is,  receive  the 
proper  professional  preparation — it  was  decided  to 
begin  with  the  establishment  of  institutions  which 
would  give  adult  women  and  girls  beyond  school 
age  a  thorough  professional  education.  The  first 
of  these  institutions,  Queeris  College,  in  London, 
was  established  in  1848,  with  special  intention  to 
prepare  female  teachers  and  governesses.  The  col- 
lege owes  its  existence  especially  to  some  professors 
of  King's  College,  among  whom  were  Rev.  C.  G. 
Nicolay  and  Rev.  F.  D.  Maurice.  Since  the  previ- 
ous school  education  of  the  students  of  Queen's  Col- 
lege was  found  frequently  quite  insufficient,  prepar- 
atory classes  were  added.  Soon  the  college  courses 
could  be  extended.  They  embrace  to-day  Religion 
and  Church  History,  Elementary  and  Higher  Mathe- 
matics, Latin,  Greek,  Modern  Languages,  History, 
Natural  Sciences,  Logic,  Ethics,  and  Music. 

Queen's  College  will  always  be  of  great  interest, 
being  the  oldest  of  the  English  female  colleges ;  but 
it  is  not  the  type  of  the  present  English  colleges.* 

*  The  terra  college  is  often  applied  in  England  to  what  in 
continental  Europe  is  considered  a  secondary  school,  the  course 
of  which  is  higher  than  that  of  an  elementary  or  grammar 
school.  In  the  strictest  acceptation  of  the  word  it  means  a 
building  (attached  to  an  English  university)  in  which  the 
students  live  together.  Since  a  great  part  of  the  studying  is 


EARLY  FEMALE  COLLEGES.  9 

It  has,  till  the  present  day,  retained  the  character  it 
received  at  its  foundation.  It  is  the  only  female 
college  managed  by  men.  It  follows,  with  the  best 
of  intentions,  a  careful  system  of  adaptation  in  pre- 
senting the  matter  of  instruction  to  its  students, 
which  is  not  compatible  with  strict  science.  But 
since  the  intention  is  not  made  secret  but  stated 
plainly,  and  publicly  at  that,  no  objection  can  be 
raised.*  The  college  accomplishes  one  great  object ; 
like  the  courses  which  have  recently  been  opened  to 
the  women  in  King's  College,  in  London,  it  offers 
educated,  but  non-professional  persons  a  chance  for 
continuing  their  studies,  and  hence  resembles  in  that 
our  Victoria-Lyceum  (in  Berlin). 

A  second  institution  soon  followed.  During  the 
same  year  (1848)  a  Miss  Reid,  in  London,  was  "sur- 
prised" by  the  receipt  of  a  letter  containing  the 
information  that  half  a  dozen  honorable  gentle- 
men, at  a  friendly  banquet,  had  discussed  the  unsatis- 
factory state  of  female  education,  and  concluded  to 

done  in  those  students'  dwellings,  the  name  has  in  due  course  of 
time  been  transferred  to  other  institutions  which  offer  higher 
education,  notably  those  which  prepare  for  the  university  exam- 
inations, though  no  boarding  and  lodging  establishment  is  con- 
nected with  them. 

* "  The  college  does  not  undertake  to  provide  the  full 
instruction  which  may  be  required  for  the  degree  examinations 
of  the  University  of  London."  Queen's  College  Calendar,  1888, 
p.  35. 


10  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

do  something  to  alleviate  the  wrong  done  to  the 
female  sex,  since  they  could  not  consider  it  right 
that  the  many  benevolent  and  charitable  institutions 
established  for  the  education  of  the  youth  of  the 
country  should  be  utilized  exclusively  by  boys  and 
young  men. 

The  half-dozen  honorable  men,  and,  in  fact,  the 
whole  letter,  proved  to  be  a  pious  deception  of  Miss 
Reid,  who  in  this  way  thought  to  introduce  to  the 
public  a  plan  which  lay  nearest  her  heart.  She  had 
aided  zealously  in  founding  Queen's  College,  having 
herself  felt  acutely  the  want  of  higher  intellectual 
education,  and  now  intended  to  establish  a  second  col- 
lege for  women  in  another  part  of  the  city,  which, 
indeed,  in  1849,  was  opened  under  the  name  of 
Bedford  College  after  surmounting  great  obstacles. 

Bedford  College  also  is  still  in  existence,  and  has 
the  satisfaction  of  looking  back  upon  a  blessed  time 
of  work.  Many  thoroughly  and  highly  educated 
women  who  have  devoted  their  entire  lives  to  the 
cause  of  their  sex,  and  served  it  well,  were  here 
educated.  At  first  it  was  shaped  after  Queen's 
College,  but  later  experienced  many  changes  dic- 
tated by  the  spirit  of  the  time;  so  that  at  pres- 
ent it  is  a  boarding  school  (properly  speaking),  and 
prepares  students  for  other  colleges,  and  even  for 
the  examinations  of  the  University  of  London. 


CAUSE  AND  EFFECT.  H 

After  this  a  longer  pause  is  noticed,  for  not 
until  after  1862  was  the  miserable  condition  of  fe- 
male education  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  pub- 
lic and  the  question  again  agitated.  It  became 
evident  that  more — much  more — must  be  done  for 
the  education  of  young  ladies  and  adults  (that  only 
women  should  conduct  the  institutions  for  women 
was  never  doubted)  if  the  lower  schools  should  be 
improved ;  but  the  higher  education  of  adults  found 
the  most  formidable  difficulty  in  the  want  of  proper 
preparation  of  the  students  in  the  lower  schools. 
Thus  the  movement  was  that  of  a  circle,  from  which 
an  exit  has  at  last  been  found  by  artificially  induc- 
ing the  lower  schools  to  increased  exertion  and  care. 
It  is  done  by  introducing  a  system  of  official  exam- 
inations. 

For  many  years  the  so-called  junior  and  senior 
examinations  had  existed  for.boys,  examinations  at 
the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  respectively,  which 
served  to  prove  the  existence  of  a  certain  amount  of 
knowledge  desirable  at  these  ages.  In  1862  a  com- 
mittee was  formed  which  attempted  to  induce  the 
authorities  to  admit  girls  to  these  examinations.  In 
1863  a  trial  examination  was  held  for  girls,  which 
had  very  poor  results ;  but  this  only  gave  a  fresh 
impetus  to  the  workers  in  the  cause,  and  it  is  specially 
owing  to  the  exertions  of  Miss  Emily  Davies  that  in 


12  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

1865  the  local  examinations  were  offered  to  young 
ladies  in  Cambridge,  and  soon  afterward  in  Oxford. 
Whatever  one  may  think  of  these  examinations, 
which  may  in  the  near  future  become  superfluous, 
it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  they  proved  of  great 
value  for  the  improvement  of  female,  and  particu- 
larly girls',  education.  If  they  did  nothing  else, 
they  made  it  clear  that  there  was  much  room  for 
improvement. 

With  an  energy  without  precedent,  the  English 
women  went  to  work,  and  the  result  is  fully  com- 
mensurate with  the  efforts  made.  Within  the  short 
space  of  twenty  years,  as  said  before,  England  has 
witnessed  a  complete  revolution  in  female  education, 
aided,  as  that  revolution  was,  by  the  fact  of  its 
absolute  freedom  from  governmental  interference. 
Of  course,  higher  education  of  women  may  miss  at 
times  the  essential  aid  which  a  government  could 
give  it  if  that  government  understands  its  time  and 
duties  well ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  will  not  have 
to  go  into  the  exhausting  fight  in  which  many  noble 
combatants  perish  if  the  government  should  be  op- 
posed to  it. 

More  and  more  clearly  the  women  of  England 
recognized  that  if  they  wished  to  bring  the  move- 
ment in  favor  of  higher  education  for  the  female 
sex  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion  they  must  not  be 


DIFFERENT  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN.         13 

content  with  insignificant  results — they  must  have 
the  best  the  country  offers  ;  that,  if  they  should 
want  to  keep  the  higher  education  of  their  sex  in 
their  own  hands  and  fulfill  the  important  task 
imposed  upon  them,  they  must  not  shun  the  exer- 
tions which  man  subjects  himself  to  for  the  purpose 
of  fulfilling  his  task — in  short,  they  must  aspire  to  a 
thorough  university  education. 

A  question  may  be  raised  as  to  the  correctness  of 
that  conclusion.  Different  tasks,  no  doubt,  are 
assigned  to  men  and  women;  numerous  physical 
and  psychical  differences  between  them  would  indi- 
cate that,  and  hence  point  to  the  necessity  of  a 
difference  in  intellectual  preparation.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  said,  There  is  only  one  science.  Cer- 
tainly. But  in  the  conventional  manner  of  its  trans- 
mission, in  its  preparatory  studies,  in  the  entire 
range  of  universities,  there  are,  according  to  a 
common  judgment,  so  many  points  in  which  reform 
is  needed  that  it  is  pitiable  to  think  that  women 
will  have  to  walk  the  old  worn-out  roundabout 
roads  where  shorter  and  much  better  paved  roads 
might  pleasantly  lead  them  to  their  goal.  But, 
however  probable  it  is  that  in  time  to  come  woman 
will  find,  or  at  least  seek,  her  own  ways,  it  does  not 
admit  of  doubt,  that  at  present  she  is  not  able  to  do 
that,  being  internally  not  free  enough,  and  that 


14  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

the  men  would  not  recognize  any  other  culture  as 
profound  and  sufficient  enough,  except  one  like 
their  own  and  acquired  like  their  own.  This  is  a 
truth  which  we  must  recognize  in  Germany.  Thus, 
for  instance,  experience  has  by  no  means  proved 
that  the  higher  professional  preparation  for  teachers, 
as  it  is  customary  with  us,  is  a  good  preparation  for 
a  teacher  of  girls ;  yet  that  preparation  is  thought 
by  these  teachers  the  only  correct  one.  Every 
proposition  to  give  female  teachers  for  the  upper 
grades  a  professional  training  and  preparation 
differing  from  that  given  to  men,  however  well 
adapted  it  may  be,  meets  among  teachers  who  are 
known  to  be  friends  of  the  cause  with  the  objection, 
"That  would  not  be  scientific."  Though,  person- 
ally, I  consider  this  objection  untenable,  and  though 
I  believe  that  one  might  unhesitatingly  use  other 
roads  than  the  customary  ones  without  falling  into 
the  error  of  aiding  "  half  -culture,"  or  adapting 
science  to  the  so-called  female  capacities  (I  can,  for 
instance,  not  consent  to  the  roundabout  way  of 
approaching  the  sciences  through  the  medium  of  the 
ancient  languages),  yet  I  can  understand  that  in  the 
nature  of  the  case  the  women  of  England  first 
acknowledged  the  principle :  Let  women  participate 
in  the  studies  of  the  men,  let  them  follow  the  same 
courses,  hence  let  them  pass  the  same  examinations. 


REASONS  FOR  HIGHER  EDUCATION.  15 

How  I  feel  about  this  personally  I  shall  reveal 
further  on.  It  must  suffice  here  to  state  that  there 
were  reasons  of  expediency  which  influenced  the 
women  referred  to.  They  intended  to  prove  that 
they  had  the  capacity  to  do  what  men  could  do, 
and  thus  gain  confidence  in  their  own  mental  facul- 
ties. The  university  courses  and  the  requirements 
for  education  were  well  known — they  were  current 
coin.  A  new  course  arranged  according  to  woman's 
views  and  judgment,  even  though  it  might  have  led 
to  better  results,  would  have  found  no  recognition. 
This  view  was  represented  with  special  ardor  by 
Miss  Davies,  who  expressed  it  eloquently  in  her 
book  (published  in  1866)  on  The  Higher  Education 
of  Women.  The  faults  and  failings  of  girls'  educa- 
tion as  hitherto  conducted,  the  necessity  of  a  radical 
change,  the  methods  to  be  employed  to  that  end, 
find  a  thorough  and  skillful  treatment  in  the  book. 
Some  parts  of  it  may  have  importance  only  for  Eng- 
lish institutions,  but  most  of  it  is  quite  applicable 
to  German  conditions. 

With  great  earnestness  Miss  Davies  points  out 
the  danger  lying  in  the  fact  that  in  the  age  which 
is  most  important  for  the  development  of  character, 
the  years  between  school  and  marriage,  the  girls  are 
left  without  earnest  mental  occupation ;  at  best,  be- 
ing induced  to  occupy  themselves  with  some  fancy 


16  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

occupations.  What  should  be  done  instead  ?  The 
answer  depends  upon  circumstances.  If  daughters 
of  the  better  classes  (ladies*),  they  should  receive 
the  education  of  a  lady — the  highest,  most  refined 
culture  of  the  time. 

"  The  accurate  habits  of  thought  and  the  intel- 
lectual polish  by  which  the  scholar  is  distinguished, 
ought  to  be  no  less  carefully  sought  in  the  training 
of  women  than  in  that  of  men.  This  would  be  true, 
even  if  only  for  the  sake  of  the  charm  which  high 
culture  gives  to  social  intercourse — a  charm  attaina- 
ble in  no  other  way.  But  apart  from  this  consider- 
ation, the  duties  of  women  of  the  higher  class  arc 
such  as  to  demand  varied  knowledge  as  well  as  disci- 
plined mind  and  character.  Difficult  cases  in  social 
ethics  frequently  arise  on  which  women  are  obliged 
to  act  and  to  guide  the  actions  of  others.  However 
incompetent  they  may  be,  they  can  not  escape  the 
responsibility  of  judging  and  deciding.  And  though 
natural  sagacity  and  the  happy  impulses,  of  which 
we  hear  so  much,  come  to  their  aid,  prejudice  and 
mistaken  impulses  ought  also  to  be  taken  into  the 
account  as  disturbing  elements  of  a  very  mislead- 
ing kind.  In  dealing  with  social  difficulties,  the 


*  The  American  reader  will  kindly  bear  in  mind  that  Miss 
Lango  writes  from  the  standpoint  of  the  European. 


REASONS  FOR  HIGHER  EDUCATION.  If 

value  of  a  cultivated  judgment,  able  to  unravel  en- 
tangled evidence  and  to  give  due  weight  to  a  great 
variety  of  conflicting  considerations,  would  seem  to 
be  obvious  enough.  It  would  be  well  worth  while 
to  exchange  the  wonderful  unconscious  instinct  by 
which  women  are  supposed  to  leap  to  right  conclu- 
sions, no  one  knows  how,  for  the  conscious  power  of 
looking  steadily  and  comprehensively  at  the  whole 
facts  of  a  case,  and  thereupon  shaping  a  course  of 
action  with  a  clear  conception  of  its  probable  issues. 
Of  course,  a  merely  literary  education  will  not  give 
this  power.  Knowledge  of  the  world  and  of  human 
nature,  only  to  be  gained  by  observation  and  experi- 
ence, go  farther  than  mere  knowledge  of  books. 
But  the  habit  of  impartiality  and  deliberation — of 
surveying  a  wide  field  of  thought — and  of  penetrat- 
ing, so  far  as  human  eye  can  see,  into  the  heart  of 
things,  which  is  promoted  by  genuine  study  even  of 
books  alone,  tends  to  produce  an  attitude  of  mind 
favorable  for  the  consideration  of  complicated  ques- 
tions of  any  sort.  A  comparison  between  the  judg- 
ment of  a  scholar  and  that  of  an  uneducated  man  on 
matters  requiring  delicate  discrimination  and  grasp 
of  thought  shows  the  degree  in  which  the  intellect 
may  be  fitted  by  training  for  tasks  of  this  nature. 
A  large  and  liberal  culture  is  probably  also  the  best 
corrective  of  the  tendency  to  take  petty  views  of 


18  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

things,  and  on  this  account  is  especially  to  be  desired 
for  women  on  whom  it  devolves  to  give  the  tone  to 
society."  * 

Equally  and  even  more  important  a  thorough  in- 
tellectual education  seems  desirable  for  the  ladies  of 
the  upper  classes  of  a  people  when  the  fact  is  con- 
sidered that  upon  them  devolve  the  social  institutions 
concerning  the  weal  of  the  poorer  classes,  hospitals, 
hygienic  reforms,  educational  provisions.  Here  also 
a  clear  mind,  well  trained  in  thinking,  is  as  essential 
as  a  warm  heart.  That  finally  an  extended  course 
of  study,  above  all  things,  is  necessary  for  those  who 
are  to  undertake  the  office  of  teaching  others,  is  so 
obvious  that  it  needs  no  particular  emphasis. 

"  The  incompleteness  of  the  education  of  school- 
mistresses and  governesses  is  a  drawback  which  no 
amount  of  intelligence  and  good-will  can  enable 
them  entirely  to  overcome.  It  is  obvious  that  for 
those  who  have  to  impart  knowledge  the  primary 
requisite  is  to  possess  it ;  and  it  is  one  of  the  great 
difficulties  of  female  teachers  that  they  are  called 
upon  to  instruct  others  while  very  inadequately  in- 
structed themselves.  The  more  earnest  and  consci- 
entious devote  their  leisure  hours  to  continued  study, 
and,  no  doubt,  much  may  be  done  in  this  way ;  but 

*  E.  Davies,  The  Higher  Education  of  Women,  London, 
I860,  pp.  73,  etc. 


OBJECTIONS  MET.  19 

it  is  at  the  cost  of  overwork,  often  involving  the 
sacrifice  of  health,  to  say  nothing  of  the  disadvan- 
tages of  working  alone,  without  a  teacher  (often 
without  good  books)  and  without  the  wholesome 
stimulus  of  companionship."  * 

Miss  Davies  then  refers  to  the  numerous  objec- 
tions in  which  the  men  are  so  inventive  when  im- 
provement of  female  education  is  concerned.  She 
combats  them  effectually,  and  then,  with  clear  insight 
into  the  want  of  satisfaction  arising  from  study  with- 
out guidance  and  ultimate  aim,  demands  degree- 
examinations  for  women  in  the  universities.  She 
expects  an  improvement  in  the  entire  field  of  female 
education  from  such  examinations;  colleges  and 
preparatory  schools  would  be,  she  thinks,  obliged  to 
take  them  into  account,  and,  above  all,  the  appoint- 
ment of  teachers  would  be  subjected  to  a  more  rigid 
control,  and  better  teachers  would  be  wanted.  She 
concludes  with  pointing  out  that  many  of  those  dif- 
ferences between  "male  and  female  occupations," 
"  male  and  female  peculiarities,"  are  raised  arbitra- 
rily, and  derived  from  the  present  state  of  affairs; 
just  as  she  pointed  out  in  the  earlier  course  of  her 
expose  that  much  of  what  the  women  demand  now 
used  to  be  granted  to  them  unhesitatingly,  so  that, 

*  E.  Davies,  The  Higher  Education  of  Women,  p.  73. 


20  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN   IN  EUROPE. 

in  fact,  the  present  movement  simply  intends  to  re- 
cover the  former  state  of  affairs,  hence  that  the  de- 
fenders of  the  present  state  are  to  be  considered  the 
reformers.  "  To  create  facts,"  says  she,  "  and  then 
to  argue  from  them  as  though  they  were  the  result 
of  an  unalterable  destiny  is  a  method  which  con- 
vinces only  so  long  as  it  is  enforced  by  prejudice. 
' Every  one  according  to  his  capacity ! '  'To  every 
laborer  that  work  for  which  he  is  best  suited ! ' 
These  are  maxims  of  unquestioned  validity.  But 
who  shall  say  for  another — much  more,  who  shall 
say  for  half  the  human  race — this,  or  that,  is  the 
measure  of  your  capacity ;  this,  and  no  other,  is  the 
work  you  are  qualified  to  perform  ?  '  Women's 
work,'  it  is  said,  '  is  helping  work.'  Certainly  it  is ! 
And  is  it  men's  work  to  hinder?  The  vague  in- 
formation that  women  are  to  be  ministering  angels 
is  no  answer  to  the  practical  questions,  Whom  are 
they  to  help  ?  And  how  ?  The  easy  solution,  that  it 
is  their  nature  to  do  what  men  can  not  do  or  can  not 
do  so  well,  has  never  been  adopted  in  practice,  inas- 
much as  everything  in  the  world  that  there  is  to  do, 
the  care  of  infants  alone  excepted,  men  are  doing ; 
and  there  is  nothing  that  a  trained  man  can  not  do 
better  than  an  untrained  woman."  * 

*  E.  Davies,  The  Higher  Education  of  Women,  p.  171. 


WHAT  WILL  BE  THE  EFFECT!  21 

Miss  Da  vies  finally  touches  the  question :  What 
will  happen  when  the  women  seize  upon  the  occu- 
pations of  men,  and  thus  injure  them  ?  This  is  a 
question  which  appears  less  urgent  than  the  oppo- 
site party  would  have  us  believe,  since  as  long  as 
the  world  will  exist  the  great  majority  of  women 
will  find  ample  occupation  in  the  care  of  their 
families  and  the  education  of  their  children.  Their 
professional  engagement  will  be  at  best  a  temporary 
one,  but  as  such  it  may  prove  of  the  highest  use- 
fulness. 

"  Will  not  the  intrusion  of  women  into  profes- 
sions and  trades  already  overcrowded  lower  the 
current  rate  of  wages,  and  by  thus  making  men  less 
able  to  support  their  families,  in  the  long  run  do 
more  harm  than  good?  As  to  the  manner  and 
degree  in  which  the  labor  market  might  be  affected 
by  such  a  readjustment  as  is  proposed  it  is  difficult 
to  predict  anything  with  certainty.  It  is  impossible 
to  tell  beforehand  how  many  women  would  take 
to  what  is  called  (by  a  very  conspicuous  petitio 
principii)  men's  work,  and  how  large  a  portion  of 
their  lives  they  would  devote  to  it.  If  women 
already  destined  to  work  for  their  bread  chose  to 
earn  it  in  some  hitherto  unaccustomed  way,  it  is 
obvious  that  in  the  exact  measure  in  which  their 
entrance  into  a  new  profession  reduced  the  rate  of 


22  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

wages  in  that  particular  calling  it  would  tend  to 
raise  it  in  some  other  which  they  would  have  other- 
wise pursued,  and  the  balance  would  thus  be 
restored.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  women  are  not 
supporting  themselves  they  are  being  supported  by 
somebody  else,  consuming  either  present  earnings  or 
accumulated  savings.  To  keep  them  from  earning 
money  does  not  prevent  their  spending  it.  Let  us 
suppose  the  event,  not  a  very  probable  one,  that  the 
introduction  of  women  into  the  medical  profession 
would  lower  the  average  rate  of  remuneration  by 
one  third,  in  which  case  the  professional  income  of 
an  ordinary  medical  man  would  be  lessened  in  the 
same  proportion.  Let  us  suppose  also — a  not  at  all 
improbable  case — that  the  doctor's  wife,  or  sister,  or 
daughter,  would  earn,  in  the  practice  of  her  profes- 
sion, a  sum  equivalent  to  the  one  third  he  has  lost. 
Evidently,  the  doctor  and  his  family  would  be  where 
they  were,  neither  better  nor  worse  off  than  before. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  public  would  be  BO  much 
richer  by  getting  its  medical  attendance  one  third 
cheaper.  Whatever  might  be  the  temporary  effect 
of  opening  any  particular  profession  to  women  one 
thing  is  certain  it  can  never  be  for  the  interest  of 
society,  in  a  purely  economical  aspect,  to  keep  any 
class  of  its  members  in  idleness.  A  man  who  should 
carry  one  of  his  arms  in  a  sling  in  order  to  secure 


WHAT   WILL  BE  THE  EFFECT!  23 

greater  efficiency  and  importance  to  the  other 
would  be  regarded  as  a  lunatic.  The  one  free  mem- 
ber might  very  probably  gain  a  little  extra  dexterity 
of  an  abnormal  sort,  but  that  the  man  would  be,  on 
the  whole,  a  loser,  is  obvious.  The  case  of  the  body 
politic  is  precisely  analogous.  The  economical 
argument  is  all  in  favor  of  setting  everybody  to 
work.  Such  difficulties  as  exist  are  of  a  moral  or 
aesthetic  nature,  and  require  for  their  disentangle- 
ment considerations  of  a  different  sort  from  those 
which  govern  the  comparatively  easy  economical 
question.* 

*E.  Davies,  The  Higher  Education  of  Women,  p.  173. 


CHAPTER  II. 

FIKST   FEMALE   COLLEGES    IN   ENGLAND. 

Miss  DAVIES'S  book  only  expressed  in  words 
what  moved  in  the  hearts  and  brains  of  many  peo- 
ple during  the  decade  in  which  her  book  appeared 
(1866),  and  the  questions  touched  upon  here  came 
up  continually  in  the  discussions  of  the  press,  and 
found  the  unreserved  approval  and  support  among 
influential  men.  It  was  at  last  concluded  to  make 
a  trial  of  opening  the  university  courses  to  woman. 
In  1869  a  house  was  rented  in  Hitchin,  situated 
not  far  from  Cambridge,  and  some  of  the  fore- 
most professors  of  the  university,  who  had  ex- 
pressed the  greatest  interest  in  the  experiment, 
were  ready  to  conduct  the  studies  of  female  stu- 
dents, despite  the  enormous  sacrifices  of  time  and 
personal  comfort  it  would  involve.  In  October, 
1869,  six  young  women  congregated  at  Hitchin  to 
begin  the  new  and  bold  undertaking.  They  were 
acquainted  only  with  the  elements  of  the  ancient 
languages  and  mathematics,  and  the  modest  re- 


FOUNDATION  OF  GIRTON  COLLEGE.  25 

quirements  of  the   "  little-go "  *   seemed  to   them 
enormous. 

After  a  year  of  hard  work,  five  of  them  sub- 
mitted to  this  "  previous  "  examination.  The  exam- 
iners had  expressed  their  willingness  to  test  their 
work  acccording  to  the  standards  set  up  by  the 
university.  The  result  was  favorable,  and  the 
women  who  had  thus  won  admission  to  the  further 
studies  of  the  university  now  took  up  the  mathe- 
matical and  classical  tripos,  and  graduated  with 
honor  after  several  years  of  hard  toil  and  labor. 
Meanwhile  in  Girton,  near  Cambridge,  a  site  for  a 

*  The  English  university  examinations  consist  of  "  pre- 
vious "  (at  least  in  Cambridge),  called  "  little-go  "  in  student's 
slang,  and  "  final "  examinations,  which  latter  again  consist  of 
an  easier  and  a  more  difficult  one.  The  former,  the  so-called 
degree  examination,  secures  to  the  student  the  degree  of 
"  bachelor  of  arts,"  and  is  comparatively  easy.  In  Germany  the 
results  of  English  university  education  are  gauged  by  its  require- 
ments, which  seems  incomprehensible.  But  of  this  ordinary 
degree  the  Englishman  thinks  very  little.  He  who  can  afford 
it  passes  the  much  more  difficult  examination  "  with  honors" 
(called  "  tripos "  in  Cambridge).  The  women  nowadays 
invariably  undertake  to  prepare  for  this  examination  "with 
honors,"  after  having  passed  the  ordeal  of  the  "  little-go."  They 
do  not  care  for  the  degree  examination.  It  is  not  my  business, 
nor  do  I  feel  inclined  to  discuss  the  methods  of  university 
examination,  its  many  annoyances  and  unprofitable  features. 
They  are  made  by  men,  not  by  women,  and  are  not  intimately 
related  with  the  question  at  issue.  But  of  course  the  women 
have  to  submit  to  the  institutions  as  they  find  them,  and  must 
not  be  made  responsible  for  their  existence. 


26  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

new  female  college  was  bought  and  the  erection  of  a 
new  building  begun.  The  means  to  this  enterprise 
were  raised  partly  by  subscription,  partly  by  a  mort- 
gage on  the  property.  "During  the  time  of  the 
erection  of  the  college  building,"  so  writes  a  young 
American  lady,  a  young  Girtonian,  from  whose 
report  these  data  are  taken,*  "students  and  pro- 
fessors frequently  came  to  the  college,  and  many  a 
stone  was  laid  by  them  with  their  own  hands.  In 
1872  the  new  institution  was  opened  under  the 
name  of  Girton  College.  In  October,  1873,  the  new 
buildings  were  occupied,  and  since  that  time  the 
interest  of  the  university  of  Cambridge  has  been 
more  generous  to  its  foster-child  than  ever." 

The  little  report  referred  to  appeared  in  1876, 
hence  shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the  new 
college,  at  a  time  in  which  the  university  proper 
had  not  formally  sanctioned  the  institution,  in  which 
consequently  everything  depended  upon  the  good 
will  of  the  professors.  The  reporter  can  not  praise 
enough  the  sacrifices  made  by  some  members  of  the 
university,  who  willingly  gave  up  their  leisure  hours 
in  the  afternoon  in  order  to  come  to  Girton  to  give 
their  lessons.  Girton  had  at  that  time  no  tutors  as 
yet,  who  could  only  be  women.  After  a  description 

*  An  Interior  View  of  Girton  College.    Cambridge,  1876. 


TRUE-HEARTED  ENGLISH  GIRLS.  27 

of  the  life  in  college,  she  finds  it  difficult  to  give  a 
clear  idea  of  the  healthy  tone  that  prevailed  there 
without  raising  in  her  American  readers  the  suspi- 
cion that  the  students  had  belonged  to  that  strong- 
minded  type  which  is  justly  so  much  abhorred. 
"  Perhaps  it  can  not  be  stated  in  any  better  way  why 
this  idea  is  utterly  wrong  of  Girton  College  students 
than  by  emphasizing  that  they  were  not  even  con- 
scious of  their  exposed  position  and  representative 
character.  They  did  not  consider  themselves  at  all 
as  leaders  in  a  '  cause ' ;  they  hardly  ever  mentioned 
among  themselves  their  exposed  position  before  the 
eyes  of  the  public.  They  were  true-hearted  English 
girls  and  women,  who  worked  for  the  sake  of  work, 
from  their  own  impulses,  with  joyful  hearts,  entirely 
free  of  that  unwholesome  aspiration  for  recognition 
so  frequently  found  among  women  who  are  en- 
gaged in  intellectual  work.  Half  of  the  students 
intend  to  become  teachers — not  governesses,  but 
school  teachers  and  principals.  ....  The  other  half 
of  the  students  at  Girton  work  without  a  special 
profession  in  mind." 

Since  the  appearance  of  this  report  more  than 
twelve  years  have  passed,  and  Girton  College  has 
grown  rapidly.  The  modest  building  intended  only 
to  offer  room  for  nineteen  students  has  been  ex- 
tended and  enlarged  to  a  very  stately  edifice,  which 


28  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF   WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

offers  room  for  a  hundred  students.  Such  a  success 
was  possible  only  by  the  great  and  active  interest 
shown  everywhere.  Women  of  intelligence  and 
influence,  like  Lady  Stanley  of  Alderley,  Lady 
Goldsmith,  Lady  Ponsonby,  Miss  Davies,  Miss 
Shire.ff,  sacrificed  their  time  and  means  to  this  en- 
terprise ;  several  legacies  covered  a  great  part  of  the 
building  expenses;  and  the  future  of  the  college 
seems  now  completely  secured.  According  to  the 
report  of  1887  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine  Gir- 
tonians  have  passed  their  examinations  with  honors, 
namely,  forty-four  in  classical  philology,  thirty-six 
in  mathematics,  one  in  mathematics  and  history, 
twenty-two  in  natural  sciences,  two  in  natural  sci- 
ences and  philosophy,  fourteen  in  philosophy,  eight 
in  history,  one  in  modern  languages  and  in  theology ; 
besides  these,  twenty-nine  students  have  passed  the 
degree  examination  of  the  common  "bachelor  of 
arts"  standard. 

A  remarkably  active  life — internally  and  exter- 
nally— fills  the  vast  building.  Those  who  predicted 
a  complete  ruin  of  health  as  a  consequence  of  the 
increased  intellectual  efforts  would  be  astonished  to 
see,  instead  of  expected  pale,  hollow-chested,  over- 
studied  blue-stockings,  fresh  young  women  of  bloom- 
ing color  and  energetic  movements.  The  extraor- 
dinarily liberal  supply  of  food  in  the  college  adds 


THE  LIFE  OF  GIRTON  STUDENTS.  29 

undoubtedly  to  the  looks  and  disposition  of  tlie  in- 
mates ;  besides,  the  work  itself  is  in  a  high  degree 
animating,  inasmuch  as  it  is  more  the  intellect  than 
the  memory  which  is  appealed  to.  Lastly,  the  re- 
viving effect  of  fresh  air,  cold  water,  and  much 
physical  exercise,  to  which  the  spacious  lawns  of  the 
campus,  a  gymnasium,  and  the  lovely  meadows  and 
fields  around  Cambridge  invite  urgently — I  say  a 
faith  in  the  effect  of  all  tliis  is  one  of  the  articles 
of  the  Girtonian  creed.  In  all  kinds  of  weather 
excursions  in  vehicles,  on  horseback,  or  on  foot  are 
made  daily,  and  on  bright  afternoons  the  balls  at 
lawn-tennis  are  seen  flying  to  and  fro  amid  the 
cheerful  laughter  of  the  students. 

The  external  discipline  is  limited  to  a  few  rules, 
absolutely  necessary  in  such  a  large  community; 
they  have  reference  to  coming  and  going,  visits  and 
calls,  and  similar  points.  In  all  else  the  Girtonians 
are  perfectly  free,  and  the  use  they  make  of  their 
liberty  shows  that  they  are  worthy  of  it.  A  certain 
programme  has  developed,  as  it  were,  of  itself.  The 
day  begins  at  seven  o'clock  ;  at  eight  divine  service 
is  held  in  the  session  room ;  between  8.15  and  nine 
o'clock  breakfast  is  taken  ;  the  remainder  of  the 
morning  is  devoted  to  study.  Some  of  the  students 
attend  the  lectures  at  Cambridge  with  the  young 
men,  or  they  work  with  the  lady  tutors  who  live  in 


30  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

Girton.  Some  lectures  are  given  in  the  afternoon 
by  the  professors  coming  over  from  Cambridge. 
Each  student  receives  the  greatest  consideration 
possible  regarding  her  individual  studies.  At  times 
a  lecture  programme  is  modified  or  changed  so  as  to 
accommodate  two  students,  or  even  one  student. 
The  excellent  state  of  physical  health  of  the  students 
may  be  accounted  for  partly  by  the  limitation  to 
which  the  time  devoted  to  instruction  is  subjected. 
Instead  of  five  lessons,  as  is  the  custom  in  our  Ger- 
man seminaries,  these  students  have  rarely  more 
than  two  lessons,  and  that  is  considered  enough,  in 
order  to  afford  ample  time  for  preparation  and  con- 
sultation in  private  study,  which  is  given  great 
weight.  Thanks  to  the  generosity  of  warm-hearted 
men  and  women,  everything  can  be  procured  that 
may  in  any  way  support  this  study — a  laboratory,  a 
spacious  library  room  (which  is  being  filled  rapidly), 
a  reading  room,  and  last,  but  not  least,  comfortable 
private  rooms  invite  to  hard  study.  Each  student 
has  two  rooms,  a  study  and  a  bed-room,  and  with 
the  aid  of  books,  pot  plants  and  flowers,  pictures, 
rugs,  and  tidies,  she  makes  her  rooms  a  little  home 
of  her  own.  Here  the  mornings  are  spent  in  study 
if  there  are  no  lectures  on  her  programme.  Lunch- 
eon is  served  between  twelve  and  three,  and  work 
is  not  taken  up  again  before  a  good  deal  of  physical 


THE  LIFE  OP  GIRTON  STUDENTS.  31 

exercise  in  the  open  air  is  taken  and  the  mind  has 
been  furnished  with  new  elasticity.  After  dinner, 
which  is  served  at  six  o'clock,  and  consists  of  nutri- 
tious meats,  vegetables,  and  puddings,  frequently 
follows  music,  and  even  a  little  dancing.  And  again 
intellectual  work  is  taken  up,  but  the  appearance  of 
tea,  coffee,  or  cocoa,  brought  into  the  rooms  upon 
neat  salvers,  interrupts  work.  At  times,  a  tea-party 
in  one  of  the  private  rooms  is  held,  which,  compared 
with  the  male  students'  evening  amusement  behind 
the  flowing  bowl,  is  greatly  preferable  and  causes 
less  headache.  Some  of  the  students  go  to  bed  at 
half -past  ten,  others  stay  up  and  study  by  lamplight 
till  midnight.  A  healthy  modesty  prevails  in  all 
their  studies  far  from  exaggeration,  yet  it  may  be 
claimed  that  more  real  work  is  performed  here  than 
in  male  colleges.  Young  men,  having  much  super- 
fluous time  and  energy,  squander  it  in  pastimes,  and 
hence  it  may  be  deemed  a  good  thing  that  the  tender 
physical  constitution  of  woman  will  not  admit  this 
double  exertion. 

The  institution  is  now  under  the  efficient  man- 
agement of  Miss  "Welsh,  who  was  among  the  first 
who  started  the  bold  enterprise  at  Hitchin.  A  vice- 
mistress,  Miss  Ward,  and  a  few  lady  tutors  living  in 
the  college,  are  her  assistants.  For  these  tutorships 
the  best  selections  are  made.  Thus,  philosophy  is 


32   HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

represented  by  Miss  Constance  Jones,  who  passed 
the  examination  in  that  branch  with  the  highest 
honors,  and  who,  by  introducing  Lotze  into  England 
and  by  translating  his  Microcosmos  in  a  masterly 
manner,  has  made  herself  meritorious.  For  the 
classics  (ancient  languages  and  history)  Miss  Ram- 
say has  been  acquired.  She  it  was  who  in  1887 
won  the  highest  honors  in  the  classical  tripos,  that 
is  to  say,  beat  her  male  competitors.  She  has  been 
introduced  to  the  German  female  world  by  an  essay 
of  Marie  von  Bunsen.* 

The  Times  of  June  20,  1887,  wrote  editori- 
ally about  her :  "  Indeed,  an  astonishing  perform- 
ance !  Miss  Ramsay  competed  with  young  men  who 
were  known  to  be  the  best  trained  students  philo- 
logically  of  the  best  schools  of  the  country — and 
she  beat  them  in  their  own  particular  domain. 
Yes,  she  proved  herself  superior  to  them  by  a  whole 
class ;  she  is  not  only  the  first  of  a  class  to  which 
several  are  admitted — no,  she  is  entirely  alone  in  the 
highest  class.  To  such  a  distinction  no  male  student 
ever  rose  ;  in  no  previous  year  was  the  difference  on 
the  field  of  classics  between  the  first  and  second 
victor  so  marked  as  this  year.  Miss  Ramsay  has 
accomplished  what  no  '  senior  classic '  ever  accom- 

*  Die  Frau  ira  geraeinnuetzigen  Leben,  1888,  1.  Heft,  p.  69. 


FOUNDATION  OP  NEWNHAM  COLLEGE.        33 

plished  before."  Miss  Ramsay  was  then  twenty 
years  old,  that  is,  several  years  younger  than  her 
competitors,  but  had  to  comply  with  all  the  require- 
ments of  examination  demanded  of  the  young  men. 
In  August,  1889,  she  married  a  master  of  Trinity 
College,  and  hence  is  going  to  be  lost  to  Girton. 
It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  students  of  Girton 
and  Newnham,  after  completing  their  studies,  marry 
soon,  and  marry  men  of  distinction.  Across  the 
channel  the  idea  does  not  seem  to  prevail  that 
woman  is  to  begin  to  learn  after  marriage  "  what- 
ever and  as  much  as  the  beloved  husband  wants 
her  to  know"  (Paul  de  Lagarde).  On  the  con- 
trary, the  idea  is  not  so  wrong  that  husband  and 
children  will  fare  better  in  their  inner  and  outer  life 
if  the  wife  is  a  thoroughly  educated  woman. 

Shortly  after  the  first  trial  had  been  made  at 
Hitchin,  and  even  before  Girton  College  was  fin- 
ished, the  establishment  of  a  new  college  for  women 
was  commenced.  It  was  to  be  erected  in  Cam- 
bridge, and  to-day  it  competes,  under  the  name  of 
Newnham  College,  in  a  pleasant  manner  with  Gir- 
ton. Already  it  offers  a  comfortable  home  to  over 
one  hundred  students.  It  owes  its  existence  and 
rapid  growth  above  all  to  the  unselfish  endeavors  of 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  professors  of  Cam- 
bridge, Professor  Henry  Sidgwick,  whose  wife  is  a 


84  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

niece  of  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury  (the  present  prime 
minister  of  England),  and  also  to  the  present  mana- 
ger of  the  college,  Miss  Anne  Clough.  "  This 
name,"  so  writes  a  Newnham  student,  "  as  the  name 
of  one  who  still  lives  among  us,  need  not  be  praised ; 
it  must  be  synonymous  with  a  courage  and  deter- 
mination and  a  love  and  unselfishness  to  which  in 
years  to  come  the  words  of  Homer  will  be  applied : 
'  ou  yap  TTO)  TOIOVS  iSov  avepa?  ouSe  l'So)/iat.'  "  * 

This  college  also  found  the  most  abundant  sup- 
port, morally  and  materially,  and  hence  flourishes. 
It  had  to  change  its  domicile  several  times  before  it 
could  erect  its  own  buildings.  It  now  consists  of 
three  halls  ;  the  first  was  opened  in  1875,  the  second 
in  1885.  The  ever  increasing  number  of  students 
led  to  the  erection  of  a  third,  which  was  opened  in 
June,  1889,  at  which  occasion  the  Prince  and 
Princess  of  Wales  were  present.  The  three  build- 
ings are  called  "The  Old  Hall,"  "Sidgwick  Hall" 
(under  the  management  of  Miss  Gladstone,  daughter 
of  the  ex-prime  minister),  and  "  Clough  Hall." 

Life  passes  here  in  much  the  same  way  as  at 
Girton,  and  under  the  motherly  care  of  Miss  Clough 
the  students  live  happily  and  judiciously  in  per- 
forming effective  work.  The  report  of  1887  makes 

*  "  Such  men  I  never  yet  saw,  and  hardly  ever  shall  see." 
Iliad,  I,  262. 


GROWTH  OP  FEMALE  COLLEGES.  35 

known,  that,  since  1871,  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
nine  students  have  passed  their  examination  with 
honors,  namely,  twenty-five  in  classical  philology, 
twenty-nine  in  mathematics,  thirty-three  in  natural 
sciences,  eighteen  in  philosophy,  twenty-nine  in 
history,  five  in  modern  languages.  Besides  this  a 
considerable  number  of  women  have  studied  at 
Newnham  different  branches  according  to  their  own 
individual  needs  and  inclinations.  This  is  a  privi- 
lege offered  by  Newnham  which  distinguishes  it 
from  Girton. 

The  colleges  in  Cambridge,  however,  had  still 
many  trials  and  tribulations  to  pass  through  before 
they  could  enjoy  the  general  recognition  and  the 
secure  position  which  they  now  enjoy.  For  ten 
years  the  students  of  the  two  colleges  had  been 
examined  unofficially,  depending  upon  the  volun- 
tary service  of  the  professors,  not  upon  an  admitted 
right.  With  the  growth  of  both  institutions,  both 
internally  and  externally,  the  unsatisfactory  state  of 
dependence  was  keenly  felt,  and  it  was  urgently 
desired  to  acquire  a  formal  right  of  admission  to  the 
university  examinations.  In  Cambridge  itself  little 
opposition  was  to  be  feared ;  the  blameless  deport, 
ment  and  the  notable  intellectual  performances  of 
the  lady  students  had  disarmed  the  greater  numbei 
of  the  opponents,  and  it  was  certain  that  among  the 


36  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

members  of  the  university  living  in  Cambridge 
there  would  be  a  majority  in  favor  of  the  proposi- 
tion. But  one  of  the  regulations  of  an  English  uni- 
versity is  that  its  graduates  are  granted  a  vote  in  its 
affairs  ;  and  the  men,  mostly  unenlightened  country 
members,  were  the  ones  whose  prejudices  and  oppo- 
sition were  feared. 

In  1881  a  motion  was  made  to  formally  grant  to 
women  the  admission  to  the  tripos  examinations. 
This  motion  was  to  come  to  a  vote  in  the  senate  of 
the  university  on  the  24th  of  February.  It  was 
seconded  by  several  of  the  foremost  professors. 
"  The  24th,"  says  a  small  report  of  Newnham 
College  Commemoration  Day,  "came  at  last,  and 
never  before  were  seen  so  many  old-fashioned 
gowns,  that  seemed  to  have  lain  away  unused  for 
years,  and  whose  wearers  had  hastened  from  all 
parts  of  England  to  take  part  in  the  memor- 
able senate-session.  An  unusual  number  of  voters 
were  present.  Outside,  mounted  messengers  of 
Girton  and  Newnham  waited  in  breathless  expecta- 
tion to  take  the  first  news  to  their  colleges.  To  the 
friends  of  our  cause  in  the  senate  the  question 
seemed  dubious  until  the  vote  was  taken  and  the 
solemn  and  ceremonious  '  placet '  or  '  non  placet ' 
was  pronounced  by  each  voter. 

"Even  to  the  most  sanguine  the  result  was  a 


PRIVILEGES  OP  MALE  COLLEGES.  37 

great  and  joyful  surprise,  for  our  cause  had  won 
with  three  hundred  and  ninety-eight  against  thirty- 
two  votes ;  and  thus  the  day  was  ours.  Little  was 
done  at  Newnham  that  day,  and  the  groups  of  ex- 
pectant students  in  the  halls  received  the  bringer 
of  glad  tidings  with  an  enthusiasm  that  will  never 
be  forgotten  by  those  present. 

"  Though  it  is  true  that  we  are  not  in  possession 
of  all  the  privileges  belonging  to  university  mem- 
bers, for  we  only  condescend  to  listen  to  the  lect- 
ures of  the  professors,  just  as  they  formally  conde- 
scended to  examine  us ;  yet  our  success  so  far  gives 
us  hope  for  the  future,  and  now  let  Newnham's 
red  bricks  become  stone-gray  with  age  in  the  proud 
consciousness  that  it  is  no  longer  an  accidence,  a 
stranger,  a  foundling,  but  an  integral  part  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge.  '  That  is  the  great  event 
which  has  made  the  24th  of  February,  1881,  a  red- 
letter  day  in  our  calendar." 

Perhaps  no  fact  is  better  suited  to  illustrate  a 
point  than  that  the  English  women  are  never  tired 
of  emphasizing,  with  deep-felt  gratitude,  the  unani- 
mous, unselfish  support  they  found  among  unpreju- 
diced men. 

One  more  point  will  have  to  be  mentioned. 
The  university  grants  much,  but  it  does  not  grant 
all.  It  recognizes  the  applicants  for  licenses,  but 


38  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF   WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

does  not  recognize  them  as  full-fledged  members 
of  the  university — that  is  to  say,  it  does  not  grant 
degrees,  such  as  "  bachelor  of  arts,"  nor  the  use  of 
the  library,  laboratories,  and  museums,  although,  in 
this  respect,  the  kindness  of  many  of  the  professors 
have  made  concessions  which  are  ample  enough  for 
practical  purposes.  That  the  university  denies  the 
degrees,  that  is,  the  name,  while  it  grants  the  thing, 
has  its  cause  in  the  circumstance  that  with  the  de- 
gree is  connected  the  right  to  participate  in  the 
management  of  the  university,  and,  in  certain  cases, 
even  pecuniary  advantages.  If  the  degrees  were 
given  to  women  these  advantages  would  have  to 
be  shared  with  them ;  but,  considering  the  great 
favor  the  studying  women  have  found  in  England, 
it  is  not  expecting  too  much  when  this  last  conces- 
sion is  hoped  to  be  made  ere  long.*  Especially  is 
this  only  a  question  of  time,  since  the  University  of 
London  has  meanwhile  offered  a  good  example  in 
this  regard  and  annuled  all  differences  in  the  rights 
of  male  and  female  students.  Since  the  character  of 
the  University  of  London,  which  is  really  only  a 

*  How  decidedly  this  is  acknowledged  on  the  part  of  the 
students  is  seen  from  the  fact  that  in  the  Greek  drama,  the 
performance  of  which  is  considered  an  event  in  Cambridge,  a 
Girtonian  had  to  take  one  of  the  female  roles  in  1885,  and  Miss 
Case,  of  Girton,  played  the  Athene  in  the  Eumenides  of  .<Eschy- 
lus  in  December  of  the  same  year. 


LONDON  ADMITS  WOMEN.  39 

board  of  examiners,  is  quite  different  from  that  of 
the  ancient  universities,  the  consequences  of  grant- 
ing degrees  are  different  also. 

The  next  consequence  of  the  opening  of  female 
colleges  in  Cambridge  was  the  opening  of  two 
similar  institutions  in  Oxford,  Lady  Margaret 
Hall  and  Sommerville  Hall.  Both  have  essentially 
the  same  character  as  those  of  Cambridge. 

Then  followed,  in  1878,  the  very  important  step 
mentioned  before — the  London  University  opened 
all  its  grades  to  women.  Several  colleges  have 
since  been  established  in  London  intended  to  pre- 
pare young  women  for  the  university  examinations. 
The  lectures  in  University  College  are  attended 
by  men  and  women  simultaneously,  except  the 
purely  medical  course.  Libraries  and  laboratories 
are  both  used  in  common  by  both  sexes,  without 
any  of  those  inconveniences  that  were  formerly 
apprehended,  since  both  sexes  meet  with  all  the 
tokens  of  good  society — in  fact,  the  position  which 
the  male  students  have  taken  in  this  question  is  one 
which  betrays  a  high  degree  of  culture  and  good 
breeding.  The  female  students  in  the  University 
College  of  London  have  their  own  lady  superin- 
tendent, Miss  Morrison,  to  whom  they  may  appeal 
for  information  in  all  cases;  there  is  no  pressure 
or  undue  influence  exercised  upon  them  in  any  way. 


4:0  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

In  order  to  afford  these  students  the  same  advan- 
tages and  conveniences  for  quiet,  undisturbed  study 
that  the  students  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford  have,  a 
students'  home,  College  Hall,  has  been  erected  in 
the  vicinity  of  University  College.  This  is  under 
the  management  of  Miss  Grove.  In  this  home  a 
number  of  the  female  medical  school  students  (of 
which  more  anon)  have  found  comfortable  quarters. 
Smaller  colleges  (like  the  Westfield  College,  at 
Hampstead)  try  to  meet  the  pressing  need  felt 
everywhere  in  London. 

Among  the  other  English  female  colleges  (there 
are  some  in  Manchester,  Cardiff,  Bangor,  etc.)  one 
deserves  special  mention,  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
incredibly  large  dimensions  of  its  buildings.  It  is 
too  young  to  speak  of  its  results  as  yet.  It  is  Royal 
Holloway  College,  and  was  opened  in  presence  of 
the  Queen  of  England  in  1886.  It  can  be  reached 
from  London  in  an  hour  and  a  half,  and  is  situated 
in  Egham  on  a  little  hill  in  one  of  the  most  lovely 
of  English  landscapes.  The  edifices  are  truly 
princely.  The  sum  expended  in  their  erection 
amounts  to  $3,000,000.  They  are  built  in  French 
Renaissance  style,  and  surround  two  large  courts. 
The  length  and  breadth,  respectively,  of  the  enor- 
mous rectangular  building  is  550  and  376  feet.  One 
can  form  an  adequate  idea  of  the  colossal  size  of  the 


HOLLOWAY  COLLEGE.  41 

building  when  it  is  stated  that  it  has  about  a  thou- 
sand rooms  and  three  thousand  windows.  It  is  de- 
signed to  accommodate,  pleasantly,  two  hundred  and 
fifty  students  and  teachers  with  their  servants ;  pos- 
sesses a  chapel  of  its  own  ;  a  picture  gallery  worth 
$450,000 ;  extensive  outhouses  used  as  kitchens,  ma- 
chine rooms  for  steam-heating,  electric  light,  etc. 
This  college  is  under  the  management  of  Miss 
Bishop. 

The  founder  of  this  college,  Thomas  Hollo  way, 
carried  out  the  wishes  of  his  wife,  as  he  expressly 
states  in  the  document  of  foundation.  The  college 
is,  as  stated  before,  too  young  as  yet  to  point  to  any 
results  accomplished  by  it ;  it  has  just  completed  its 
first  year  of  study,  and  is  obliged  to  contend  with 
many  difficulties  yet.  But  in  its  grandeur  (the 
founder  has  since  endowed  it  with  funds)  it  is  an- 
other eloquent  proof  of  the  great  arid  large-hearted 
interest  which  the  woman's  movement  has  awakened 
in  England. 


CHAPTEK  III. 

WOMEN   AND   THE    STUDY   OF   MEDICINE. 

IN  one  faculty  only  the  fight  against  prejudice 
and  professional  jealousy  has  been  violent  also  in 
England,  namely,  in  that  of  medicine.  How  the 
woman  question  plays  a  rdle  in  the  battle  for  sub- 
sistence was  shown  in  the  vote  upon  the  admission 
of  women  to  the  degrees  of  the  London  University. 
The  greatest  liberality  was  shown  by  the  voters  of 
arts  and  science  faculties  (which,  in  England,  are 
less  of  bread  and  butter  studies  than  in  Germany), 
but  the  most  obstinate  opposition  was  raised  by  the 
medical  faculty.  In  "  arts "  the  vote  was  eighty 
for  and  twenty  against  admission  of  the  women ;  in 
"  science  "  it  was  eighty-nine  for  and  eleven  against ; 
but  in  "  medicine  "  it  was  only  twenty -one  for  and 
seventy-nine  against. 

The  beginning  of  studying  medicine  was  made, 
as  is  well  known,  by  an  English  lady  in  America. 
Miss  Elizabeth  Blackwell,  in  1844,  addressed  let- 
ters to  all  the  thirteen  medical  faculties  then  exist- 


WOMEN  AND  THE  STUDY  OP  MEL. 

ing  in  the  United  States,  praying  for  admit, 
the  study  of  medicine.  Twelve  refused  the 
tion.  One,  the  Geneva  Medical  College  in  Nfc 
York,  took  the  case  into  consideration  and  resolved 
to  submit  the  question  to  the  decision  of  the  stu- 
dents. A  meeting  was  held,  and  the  students  de- 
cided in  favor  of  admitting  her ;  the  students  also 
pledged  themselves  to  treat  her  as  gentlemen  would 
do,  so  that  she  might  never  repent  her  entering  the 
college.  That  resolution  was  carried  out.  And 
thus  the  study  of  medicine  was  opened  to  women 
in  America,  though  much  contention  had  to  be  gone 
through  with  before  the  movement  gained  ground. 
For  there  were  in  the  medical  faculties  in  America 
men  enough  who  spoke  of  "  the  unheard-of  presump- 
tion which  had  filled  the  petitioner  with  the  desire 
and  hope  to  enter  a  profession  which  is  reserved  for 
the  nobler  sex ; "  and  others  who  asserted,  "  that  it 
was  improper  and  immoral  to  initiate  a  woman  into 
the  nature  and  laws  of  her  own  organism." 

In  England,  the  fight  began  in  1860.  Miss 
Elizabeth  Garrett  (now  Mrs.  Anderson)  elected  the 
study  of  medicine,  and  since  it  was  generally  thought 
that  the  case  was  an  isolated  one,  which  would  hardly 
find  much  imitation  or  have  weighty  consequences, 
she  was  permitted  to  pass  the  required  examinations. 
Although  many  obstacles  were  placed  in  her  way, 


EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

jeeded,  after  five  years  of  hard  study,  to  be 
.ted  as  a  full-fledged  physician.  When  a  few 
.er  women  followed  her  example,  opposition  was 
aroused,  and  led  (especially  in  Edinburgh,  where 
Miss  Jex  Blake,  in  1869,  had  been  admitted  the 
first  female  medical  student)  to  very  shocking 
scenes,  so  that  Miss  Blake,  and  other  young  ladies 
who  had  entered  after  her,  went  to  London,  where, 
with  the  aid  of  Mrs.  Anderson  and  Miss  Thorne,  they 
tried  to  establish  a  college  of  their  own.  One  of  the 
most  zealous  supporters  of  their  cause  was  a  young 
physician,  Dr.  Anstie,  one  of  the  rare,  generous 
men  who  like  to  use  their  enthusiasm  and  energy 
in  behalf  of  the  oppressed,  and  to  render  service  to 
an  idea.  "  In  his  blood,"  so  writes  Robert  Wilson 
in  an  article  on  ^Esculapia  Yictrix  (from  which 
these  data  are  culled),  "  was  a  remarkable  dash  of 
the  chivalry  of  the  good  olden  time,  which  made 
him  known  as  the  Bayard  of  his  profession,  the 
irreconcilable  enemy  of  all  in  office  who  use  their 
power  and  prerogatives  in  oppressing  others.  His 
social  qualities,  his  scientific  and  literary  talents,  and 
the  high  standing  he  occupied  in  the  profession,  had 
given  a  weight  to  his  influence  which  is  rarely  con- 
ceded to  a  man  of  his  age,  so  that  when  he  under- 
took a  "  case  " — and  he  was  rarely  without  one — 
there  were  always  numerous  colleagues  of  his  who 


WOMEN  AND  THE  STUDY  OP  MEDICINE.      45 

were  ready  to  help  him ;  and  even  those  who  op- 
posed his  ideas  as  Utopian,  reduced  their  opposition 
as  much  as  possible.  From  the  day  on  which  Dr. 
Anstie  became  convinced  that  Miss  Jex  Blake  and 
her  companions  were  the  victims  of  mean  persecu- 
tion their  battle  was  half  won  in  London.  This  is 
plainly  visible  in  the  names  of  the  noted  men  of 
science  who,  on  August  22,  1874,  came  together  in 
his  house  on  TVimpole  Street,  where  it  was  resolved 
to  establish  an  independent  medical  college  for 
women  in  London,  and  to  place  Dr.  Anstie  at  the 
head  of  it." 

Twenty-four  of  the  foremost  physicians  formed 
the  board  of  directors  of  the  new  college  which  was 
opened  in  Henrietta  (now  Haendel)  Street  in  the 
year  1874.  Dr.  Anstie,  alas,  did  not  live  to  see  that 
day.  He  died  shortly  before— a  victim  of  his  pro- 
fession— of  blood-poisoning,  contracted  in  the  dis- 
secting-room. The  new  school  was  under  the  man- 
agement of  Dr.  Norton  till  1883 ;  since  then  Mrs. 
Garrett- Anderson,  M.  D.,  is  the  dean. 

Naturally  the  young  institution  was  subject  to 
many  annoying  circumstances,  and  even  attacks ; 
but  it  always  found,  even  in  the  medical  profession, 
generous  and  unprejudiced  men,  who  supported  the 
brave  women  in  their  good  cause,  who  granted 
them  admission  to  hospitals  and  good  clinics,  and 


46  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

tlins,  within  three  years,  all  difficulties  were  re- 
moved. The  last  and  most  significant  step  was  the 
admission  of  women  to  all  degree  examinations  and 
lectures  of  the  London  University,  since  there  all 
sciences  related  to  medicine  can  be  studied  freely, 
and  the  professional  part,  the  science  of  medicine 
proper,  is  given  due  attention  in  a  separate  college. 
The  financial  difficulties  also  were  removed,  partly 
through  subscription,  partly  through  the  magna- 
nimity and  generosity  of  friends  of  the  cause. 

He  who  visits  the  school  of  medicine  in  Haendel 
Street  to-day  will  see  in  the  zealously  active  (and  in 
their  activity  happy)  students,  that  the  hard  times 
are  passed ;  and  he  who  attends  a  commencement 
or  calls  on  any  other  festive  occasion  will  notice  the 
friendly  intercourse  between  teachers  and  students 
and  the  obvious  interest  men  of  high  position  in 
their  profession  show  in  the  flourishing  institution. 
The  house  on  such  occasions  is  in  festive  garment, 
the  dissecting  room  is  securely  closed,  the  different 
necessary  but  unsesthetic  models  and  preparations  in 
spirits  in  the  museum  are  hidden  from  the  gaze  of  the 
public  ;  on  the  lawns,  which  here  as  well  as  elsewhere 
are  inclosed  within  the  college  walls,  cheerfulness 
reigns  supreme.  The  foolish  prejudice  which  at 
first  barred  women  the  way  to  the  study  of  medi- 
cine even  in  England  is  disappearing  more  and 


WOMANLINESS.  47 

more,  though  some  physicians  of  high  repute  are 
supporting  the  prejudice  with  all  the  energy  at 
their  command. 

Robert  Wilson,  in  the  book  afore-mentioned, 
says :  "  Whether  most  of  those  who  entertained  that 
prejudice  are  dead,  or  whether  they  have  become 
wiser,  is  difficult  to  say.  English  women  now 
study  medicine  and  surgery  in  London,  without  the 
least  opposition  in  their  own  college,  with  profess- 
ors of  great  repute.  .  .  .  And  as  to  'the  world,' 
which  once  asserted  that  such  extension  of  the 

*  sphere  of  woman '  would  ruin  society,  that  same 

*  world  '  looks  on  calmly,  apprehending  ruin  as  little 
as  an  imitation  earthquake  in  a  sensational  drama 
on  the  stage  makes  the  real  world  tremble." 

But  not  only  "  society  "  but  also  "  womanliness," 
a  word  that  plays  such  an  important  rdle  among 
the  sham  arguments  of  the  opponents,  is  in  no  dan- 
ger from  the  study  of  medicine,  as  experience 
clearly  proves.  More  than  that,  the  "  womanliness  " 
of  a  great  number  of  patients  is  spared.  In  nothing 
is  seen  clearer  what  nonsense  the  thoughtless  public 
trained  by  long  continued  experience  is  able  to 
believe  and  to  defend.  Many  things,  especially  in 
the  social  intercourse  of  the  sexes,  are  considered 
unwomanly  which  have  not  the  least  objectionable 
feature  in  them;  on  the  other  hand,  things  have 


48  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

become  firmly  established  customs  which  are  only 
bearable  because  we  have  accustomed  ourselves  to 
them.  The  same  young  lady  who,  by  the  inexora- 
ble social  laws,  claims  the  most  tender  consideration 
in  physical  as  well  as  other  respects,  is  obliged  to 
submit  her  physical  being  to  very  minute  examina- 
tion by  a  strange  man.  The  contradiction  and 
absurdity  which  lies  in  this  will  only  be  understood 
by  future  generations,  who  will  have  a  different 
conception  of  "  womanliness"  than  ours.  There 
will  be  a  time  in  which  everything  will  be  consid- 
ered as  belonging  to  woman's  sphere  that  arises 
from  the  depths  of  love  and  sympathy,  of  which, 
God  be  thanked,  our  sex  is  rich.  Yes,  love  and 
sympathy  are  the  mainsprings  of  that  passive 
strength  which  enables  the  women  of  England  to 
patiently  wait  for  a  better  time  to  come.  "  Because 
we  believe  that  the  medical  profession  offers  room 
and  work  for  woman  and  affords  the  most  womanly 
gifts  and  virtues  opportunities  for  display,  a  fact 
which  is  getting  to  be  generally  understood,  a  new 
group  of  women,  though  small,  but  filled  with  the 
deepest  concern,  will  matriculate  as  students  of 
medicine.  It  would  probably  be  a  surprise  to  the 
public  (as  it  was  to  the  present  writer)  to  see  how 
extraordinarily  insignificant  is  the  amount  of 
*  strong-mindedness '  (in  the  common  acceptation 


WOMANLINESS.  49 

of  the  word)  among  the  women  who  devote  their 
lives  to  medicine.  And  the  fact  that  this  unlovable 
quality  sliines  rather  by  its  absence  than  by  its  pres- 
ence, might,  if  it  were  generally  known  and  valued, 
lead  thinking  people  to  contemplate  how  little  the 
apparent  cause  of  the  reproach  is  derived  from  the 
position  into  which  the  pioneers  of  the  movement 
have  been  placed  by  arbitrary  and  unchivalrous  op- 
position." * 

Never  has  a  truer  word  been  said.  We  shall 
have  to  make  the  experience,  doubtless,  in  even 
greater  degree  here  in  Germany,  where  the  opposi- 
tion of  men  against  a  higher  education  of  the  female 
sex  is  more  bitter  and  determined,  since  the  battle 
for  subsistence  is  fiercer.  On  that  account  the 
women  will  have  to  resolve  to  fight  a  hard  fight, 
which  may  not  at  all  be  in  harmony  with  their 
natural  inclination,  but  which  becomes  a  matter  of 
conscience  and  necessity  on  behalf  of  their  own 
sex,  and  during  which  many  men  will  have  oppor- 
tunities of  pointing  to  the  "  un womanliness  of  the 
movement."  Alas,  many  women  will  be  found  to 
join  them  in  this  denunciation. 

In  England,  the  party  of  those  who  consider  the 
medical  profession  unwomanly  is  fast  disappearing. 

*  Woman  and  Medicine.    A  prize  essay,  by  Edith  A.  Hunt- 
ley.    1886. 

4 


50  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

"  No  educated  and  unprejudiced  man  believes  to-day 
that  the  medical  profession  or  its  practice  must 
necessarily  demoralize  woman.  To  attend  the  sick 
has  at  all  times  had  a  peculiar  and,  it  seems,  very 
natural  charm  for  women ;  hence  it  is  simply  contrary 
to  common  sense  to  suppose  that  a  woman  is  com- 
promised in  this  service,  and  that  she  should  render 
it  only  when  it  can  be  done  without  professional 
preparation,  in  fine,  without  science.  And  yet  these 
queer  people  '  who  would  rather  see  their  daughters 
in  their  coflins '  than  in  a  sick-room,  save  when  it  is 
in  the  role  of  nurses,  would  make  us  believe  it.  ... 
They  are  wedded  to  the  idea  that  the  presence  of 
a  woman  at  a  sick-bed  must  needs  injure  a  woman's 
character  if  she  is  not  too  ignorant  to  find  out  what 
is  the  cause  of  the  disease.  But  they  deceive  no 
one.  As  Emerson  says,  in  his  English  Traits,  most 
Englishmen  are  godless  in  their  skepticism  against  a 
theory,  but  they  kiss  the  ground  before  a  fact. 
Now,  what  is  the  fact  in  this  case  as  most  enlight- 
ened men  see  it?  Well,  for  eleven  years  women 
have  studied  and  practiced  medicine  in  England, 
supported  by  public  opinion,  without  having  lost  in 
society  one  iota  of  respect  as  daughters,  women,  and 
mothers,  or  without  having  shown  the  least  degener- 
ation with  regard  to  the  nobler  qualities  of  heart 
and  mind.  Cadit  questio.  The  majority  of  Eng- 


WHAT  HAS  BEEN  GAINED!  51 

lishmen  unquestionably  think,  with  the  lamented 
Grote,  that  a  woman  who  shows  in  her  youth  real 
love  of  learning  and  genuine  aspiration,  and  thus 
becomes  able  to  support  herself,  should  have  at  least 
the  same  good  chance  that  a  man  has  to  make  use  of 
her  talents  as  much  as  possible."  * 

Now,  what  has  actually  been  gained  in  England 
in  medicine  2  What  are  the  chances  for  women  who 
select  the  medical  profession  ?  According  to  the 
latest  report  of  the  London  School  of  Medicine  for 
Women  (1888),  sixty  women  have  thus  far  been  en- 
tered, by  state  authority,  upon  the  list  of  approved 
physicians.  Some  of  them  practice  medicine  under 
favorable  circumstances  in  England,  some  in  other 
parts  of  Europe,  and  quite  a  number  in  India.  But 
as  yet  there  seems  to  be  no  occasion  to  make  the 
profession  an  object  of  selfish  speculation.  And  it 
is  well  that  it  is  so — that  thus  far  genuine  enthusiasm 
and  determined  will  to  bear  privation  and  trouble 
for  a  good  cause  are  necessary  to  women  who  choose 
the  medical  profession.  It  is  interesting  to  read 
what  Mrs.  Garrett-Anderson  says  on  that  point. 
"  We  know  very  well  that  the  call  for  female  physi- 
cians does  not  come  from  the  highest  stratum  of 
society,  but  from  the  best  educated  and  the  poorest 
people.  They  are  not  wanted  by  the  little  trades- 

*  ^sculapia  Victrix,  p.  31. 


52  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

people  nor  by  indolent  fashionable  ladies.  There 
are  two  strata  of  society  which  offer  physicians  a 
practice :  First,  the  poor,  presumably  because  the 
eternal  melancholy  state  of  their  lives  undermines 
their  health ;  the  poor  are,  as  is  well  known,  the 
consumers  of  medicine  '  par  excellence ' ;  second, 
the  rich,  indolent  women,  who  take  little  medicine 
but  like  consultations  with  their  pleasant-spoken, 
cheerful  physician.  These  latter  can  be  designated 
as  paying  patients ;  poor  women  take  medicine,  and 
rich  women  pay  for  it.  But  it  is  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  to  this  class  of  patients  female  physicians 
will  never  be  as  acceptable  as  male  physicians.  Now 
if  one  deducts  all  the  '  fine  ladies,'  all  men,  and  al- 
most the  entire  middle  class,  it  becomes  obvious  that 
it  will  take  a  long  time  to  obtain  a  practice.  Noth- 
ing is  left  but  the  very  poorest  people  and  the  pro- 
fessional class,  but  this  latter  is  in  truth  the  highest 
aristocracy.  But  even  here  are  obstacles.  People 
who  would  not  be  barred  by  prejudice  to  confide  to 
a  female  physician  just  entering  the  profession,  usu- 
ally have  a  male  family  physician,  whom  to  dismiss 
they  would  justly  hesitate,  if  he  has  done  his  duty 
to  them.  And  then  beginners  in  the  profession 
naturally  meet  with  distrust,  or  if  not  that,  want  of 
confidence.  To  this  comes  a  social  difficulty — to  get 
acquainted.  Every  young  practitioner  feels  this. 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  FEMALE  PHYSICIANS.      53 

No  person  is  apt  to  confide  in  a  perfect  stranger ;  lie 
must  be  known,  or,  at  least,  be  heard  of.  The  most 
superficial  acquaintance  often  suffices  to  make  peo- 
ple consult  a  medical  person,  probably  because  most 
people  believe  in  their  skill  in  reading  characters ; 
and  though  they  have  seen  the  physician  only  once, 
they  feel  to  a  certain  degree  whether  they  can  con- 
fide in  him  or  not.  Owing  to  all  these  causes,  it  is 
certain  to  my  mind  that  a  woman,  though  she  be 
ever  so  well  prepared  professionally,  will  need  to  go 
through  a  certain  time  of  probation  before  she  can 
obtain  a  practice.  But  I  doubt  not  that  such  a 
woman,  after  a  reasonable  lapse  of  time,  will  gain 
her  point." 

To  all  these  difficulties,  enumerated  by  Mrs.  An- 
derson, may  be  added  this  one  :  The  female  physi- 
cians have  had,  at  least  until  the  present  time,  little 
opportunity  to  obtain  that  part  of  their  professional 
training  which  can  begin  only  after  the  completion 
of  their  studies.  "  When  a  young  man  has  gradu- 
ated and  passed  all  his  examinations  he  tries  to  gain 
valuable  experience  by  accepting  a  position  as  assist- 
ant physician  in  a  hospital  before  he  settles  down  to 
practice  his  profession  or  accepts  a  responsible  posi- 
tion. But  there  are  only  few  and  insignificant  pos- 
sibilities of  that  kind  for  a  woman  graduate.  When 
she  has  graduated,  and  is  in  possession  of  her 


54  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

diploma,  she  is  at  once  a  full-fledged  physician,  and 
it  is  possible  that  she  be  placed  in  a  responsible  posi- 
tion immediately.  Of  course,  here  she  is  placed  on 
the  same  level  with  men  of  experience  and  profes- 
sional reputation ;  every  error  she  commits  is  re- 
garded and  spoken  of  as  what  women  can  do  and 
can't  do.  However,  all  that  must  be  expected,  though 
it  makes  the  practice  of  medicine  a  very  difficult 
and  responsible  one  for  women.  Women  who  un- 
dertake the  work  must  feel  the  deepest  concern; 
must  be  determined  not  only  to  prepare  for  the  ex- 
aminations, but  for  the  most  earnest  responsibility, 
for  which  there  is  no  superficial  preparation,  no 
royal  roads,  no  short  cuts.  They  must  expect  to  be 
subject,  for  a  long  time  after  graduation,  to  trials 
and  tribulations,  to  tests  of  critical  eyes  and  unkind 
ears,  of  microscopes  and  multiplying  glasses  applied 
diligently  at  every  error  committed.  For  a  long 
time  to  come  they  will  have  to  fight  an  unequal 
fight;  but  their  work  is  worth  wrestling  for,  and 
their  battle,  if  battle  there  must  be,  worth  being 
fought.  Perhaps  a  future  generation  will  read  with 
astonishment  of  the  old  dispute  about  the  question 
of  'female  physicians,'  and  scarcely  believe  that 
there  has  ever  been  such  a  dispute.  Meanwhile  only 
honest,  patient,  plodding  work,  not  controversy,  can 
win  the  victory." 


HOSPITALS  MANAGED  BY   WOMEN.  55 

Despite  all  the  difficulties  mentioned  and  others 
slighted,  a  good  deal  of  work  has  been  performed  in 
England.  Already,  hospitals  are  in  operation  ex- 
clusively for  women,  managed  only  by  women.  The 
present  author  will  never  forget  an  old  laboring 
woman  in  the  New  Hospital  for  Women  in  Lon- 
don (managed  by  Mrs.  Garrett  -  Anderson),  who 
had  been  in  "  many  a  'orspital,"  and  who,  just  be- 
ing operated  upon  by  lady  physicians,  could  not 
praise  the  fact  loud  enough  that  at  last  women 
were  beginning  to  think  of  their  own  eex.  She 
had  doubtless  been  treated  conscientiously  in  other 
hospitals,  and  her  loudly  expressed  gratitude  could 
only  be  explained  by  the  comparatively  greater 
comfort  of  her  environments.  Nowhere  were  flow- 
ers and  pictures  wanting  ;  as  far  as  possible  the 
impression  of  home  was  made  upon  the  patient. 
To  the  hospital  mentioned  physicians  of  the  fore- 
most rank  make  visits,  and  whenever  the  lady 
physicians  desire,  they  are  ready  to  come  for  con- 
sultations. 

In  many  cities  dispensaries  are  under  female 
management,  and,  according  to  the  judgment  of 
Englishmen,  the  time  is  not  far  distant  in  which  all 
hospitals,  schools,  dispensaries,  workhouses,  asylums, 
prisons,  reform  schools,  emigration  ships,  etc.,  will 
have  their  officially  appointed  female  physicians. 


56  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF   WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

When  that  time  comes  the  chances  of  the  profession 
will  greatly  improve. 

That  it  should  be  overcrowded  ere  long  is  not  to 
be  anticipated  for  several  reasons.  First,  the  study 
of  medicine  is  a  difficult,  expensive  study — one 
which  requires  much  time ;  hence  it  will  never  be- 
come' fashionable.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  many  of  the  female  physicians 
marry — Robert  Wilson  claims  that  the  majority  of 
them  do.  "  Indeed,  one  would  almost  think  that 
men,  in  queer  contrariness,  marry  the  type  of  women 
whose  intellectual  inclinations  they  abhor ;  perhaps 
because  they  cunningly  consider  marriage  the  easiest 
solution  of  the  problem  of  competition."  The 
greatest  number  of  the  married  female  physicians 
apply  their  professional  knowledge  for  the  benefit 
of  their  families,  and  thus,  within  a  limited  sphere, 
do  much  good.  The  few  who  keep  up  their  pro- 
fession after  marrying  are  found  to  deserve  the 
same  respect  as  housewives  and  mothers  that  they 
deserve  as  physicians.  The  energy  and  sense  of 
duty,  so  well  developed  in  their  studies  and  profes- 
sion, seems  to  double  their  strength.  And,  finally, 
the  demand  for  female  physicians  will  before  long 
increase  so  rapidly  that  an  overcrowding  of  the  pro- 
fession will  not  take  place  in  the  near  future.  Eng- 
land has  an  extended  and  desirable  field  in  India ; 


FEMALE   PHYSICIANS  IN   INDIA.  57 

desirable  not  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  but  in 
the  highest  degree  desirable  for  those  who  think 
that  alleviating  misery  and  decreasing  unbearable 
oppression  is  the  task  of  woman.  Only  recently 
the  terrible  fate  of  Hindoo  women  has  become  the 
object  of  general  sympathy,  and  with  great  energy 
English  women  are  working  to  alleviate  it ;  with 
their  medical  aid  they  hope  to  combine  information 
and  intellectual  assistance  in  every  respect.  Since 
to  them  alone  free  admittance  to  the  harems  and 
zenanas  is  granted,  their  influence  is  very  great.  A 
society  under  the  protectorate  of  the  Queen  has  been 
formed,  in  answer  to  urgent  calls  of  Lady  Dufferin, 
to  secure  female  physicians  for  India.  Since,  at  the 
same  time,  the  instruction  of  Indian  girls,  which  was 
formerly  given  by  Brahmans,  is  more  and  more  in- 
trusted to  the  hands  of  women  (schools  have  been 
established  in  India  which  are  exclusively  under  fe- 
male supervision),  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  the 
course  of  time  Indian  women  may  be  in  a  different 
position  from  the  one  in  which  they  have  been  for 
thousands  of  years. 

Thus,  in  every  direction,  to  woman  is  opened  a 
bright  look  into  the  future. 

Of  course,  even  in  England  there  is  an  occasional 
opposition ;  there  are  women  who  predict  the  ruin 
of  their  sex,  men  who  predict  the  ruin  of  science, 


58  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

but  they  become  rarer  every  year.  For  the  position 
of  the  educated  gentlemen  in  the  woman  question  a 
speech  of  Lord  Granville,  Chancellor  of  the  London 
University,  is  significant.  lie  spoke  in  June,  1888, 
before  an  assembly  which  deliberated  upon  ways  and 
means  of  procuring  sufficient  means  for  College 
Hall,  the  home  of  London  female  students.  The 
Times  of  June  30  reports  him  to  have  said : 
"  Many  years  after  I  first  entered  public  life,  any 
one  who  intended  to  preface  a  subject  such  as  we, 
with  permission  of  the  Lord  Mayor,  shall  discuss  to- 
day, would  have  been  obliged  to  mention  many 
things  that  are  perfectly  superfluous  to-day.  The 
chairman  would  then  have  been  obliged  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  although  a  certain  faith  ex- 
ists which  denies  that  woman  has  a  soul,  it  is  gener- 
ally more  probable  that  she  has  not  only  a  soul,  but 
also  a  mind ;  that  if  she  has  a  mind,  it  might  pre- 
sumably be  improved  by  education.  He  might  have 
dared  to  make  a  shadowy  allusion  to  the  possibility 
that  education  and  training  might  do  for  the  female 
intellect  what  it  did  for  the  male  "  (hilarity) ;  "  but 
as  a  sensible  man  he  would  have  followed  the  advice 
which  was  given  to  George  Stevenson,  not  to  aim 
too  high,  and  not  to  admit  that  a  woman  could  win 
academic  degrees  as  well  as  a  man  any  sooner  than 
lie  would  admit  that  a  locomotive  could  ever  run 


LORD  GRANVILLE'S  OPINION.  59 

faster  than  fifteen  miles  an  hour.  But  the  days  fol- 
low one  another  without  resembling  one  another.  I 
am  sure  there  is  no  one  in  this  building  to-day  who 
will  deny  that  the  highest  education  given  under 
rational  conditions  to  woman  will  be  of  advantage 
to  herself  as  well  as  to  the  community."  ("  Hear, 
hear ! ")  "  But  I  will  not  anticipate  those  who  will 
speak  to  you  with  conviction  of  the  desirability  of 
higher  education  for  women — a  fact  of  which  we, 
as  I  confidently  suppose,  are  all  agreed.  I  will  re- 
strict myself  to  introducing  the  discussion  of  the 
practical  and  urgent  question,  how  a  comfortable 
and  secure  home  (the  previously  mentioned  College 
Hall)  may  be  founded  for  such  women  who  are 
desirous  of  making  use  of  the  higher  education 
offered  in  University  College  and  the  Woman's 
Medical  School." 

The  chairman  then  remarked  that  indisposition 
prevented  Sir  Henry  Acland  from  being  present  on 
this  occasion ;  he  was  a  man  who  merited  the  high- 
est praise  for  his  support  of  the  cause  of  higher 
education  for  women.  To  judge  from  his  written 
utterances,  he  would  have  expressed  his  conviction 
"  that  sufficient  means  must  le  procured  in  order  to 
give  women  as  good  an  education  as  men."  ("  Hear, 
hear ! "  and  "  Bravo  ! ")  "  I  may  be  permitted,"  con- 
tinued Lord  Granville,  "  to  congratulate  the  students 


CO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

of  College  Hall  for  their  conduct,  tlieir  intellectual 
accomplishments,  and  their  results.  May  their  work 
not  only  be  crowned  with  all  the  honors  which  the 
university  can  bestow,  but  may  that  work  be  favored 
by  a  long,  happy,  and  useful  life !  " 

Thus  speaks  the  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
London ! 

This  was  about  the  same  time  in  which  members 
of  the  Prussian  House  of  Deputies,  who  were  called 
upon  to  discuss  a  bill  important  for  the  women  of 
Prussia,  remarked,  "  The  world  will  not  go  to  wreck 
and  ruin  if  the  women  have  to  wait  a  little  longer." 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FEMALE   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS   IN   ENGLAND. 

WHILE  thus  occupied  with  the  highest,  that  is, 
the  professional  education  of  women,  people  in 
England  by  no  means  forgot  the  secondary  schools 
for  girls.  On  the  contrary,  their  reform  was  un- 
dertaken with  rare  energy,  and  in  the  course  of  less 
than  two  decades  a  grand  and  complete  revolution 
has  taken  place. 

Two  circumstances  have  greatly  facilitated  the 
task  which  English  women  had  set  themselves. 
First,  no  man  thought  of  disputing  their  right  to 
the  education  of  girls  and  the  management  of  their 
schools.  The  feeling  that  for  girls'  education  and 
instruction  women  above  all  should  be  qualified,  and 
the  idea  that  in  many  cases  they  alone  are  qualified, 
generally  prevails.  "Women  have  a  seat  and  vote 
in  the  municipal  school  boards.  In  London  people 
insisted  that  they  should  be  appointed  because  some 
citizens  said  :  Don't  we  send  girls  to  school  ?  Hence 
the  difficulty,  which  with  us  is  greatest,  did  not  pre- 


62  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

sent  itself  at  all  in  England,  It  must  be  admitted 
tliat  the  management  of  such  schools  by  women  had 
frequently  been  quite  insufficient,  but  the  cause  of 
this  was  clear,  the  women  had  not  been  trained 
sufficiently.  Hence  adequate  provisions  for  a 
thorough  professional  preparation  were  made.  In 
Germany  the  authorities  came  to  a  different  conclu- 
sion. "Woman's  management  of  schools,  as  Dr. 
Noldeke  quotes  disdainfully  in  his  book  From 
"Weimar  to  Berlin,  has  been  proved  incompetent ; 
hence  man  must  take  her  place.  It  shall  not  be 
denied  for  a  moment  that  man  did  this  in  the  most 
conscientious  manner,  but  it  should  be  emphatically 
stated  that  that  was  a  mischievous  mistake.  Other 
people  have  said  enough  on  that  head.*  That, 
however,  the  natural  inclination  comparatively 
rarely  induces  the  men  to  devote  themselves  to 
girls'  education,  and  that  bread  and  butter  has 
something  to  do  with  it  may  be  seen  from  the  fact 
that  in  Prussia  about  14  per  cent  of  the  unen- 
dowed private  girls'  schools  are  managed  by  men, 
86  per  cent  by  women ;  while  of  the  well-endowed 
public  girls'  schools,  on  the  other  hand,  92  per 
cent  are  managed  by  men,  and  only  8  per  cent 
(mostly  Catholic  ones)  by  women. 

*  Die  hoehcrc  Maedchenschulc  und  ihre  Bestiinmung.  Berlin, 
Appelius,  1888. 


GOVERNMENTAL  SUPERVISION  OR  NOT!      63 

[A  graphic  presentation  will   show  this  signi- 
ficant fact  more  clearly.  —  TRANSLATOR.] 


The  second  circumstance  wliich  made  the  work 
of  reform  in  England  so  much  more  easy  is  the 
vital  fact  that  the  middle  and  highest  schools  (that 
is,  secondary  instruction  and  the  universities)  in 
England  are  free  from  governmental  supervision 
and  interference.  That  may  in  certain  cases  be  a 
great  disadvantage,  but  it  may  equally  often  be  of 
advantage.  It  depends  greatly  upon  the  initiative 
power  of  the  people.  We  have  experienced  both 
in  Prussia,  the  advantage  and  the  disadvantage. 
There  have  been  times  in  which  the  entire  school 
system  was  elevated  by  a  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion who  had  a  proper  and  correct  conception  of 
what  the  nation  needed  ;  we  have  had  times  also 
in  which  we  experienced  a  reaction  that  caused 
deep  wounds  and  badly  disfiguring  scars. 

The  development  of  English  life  has  been  such 
that  the  cultured  strata  of  society  would  scarcely 
tolerate  a  state  guardianship  in  the  education  of 
their  children.  Noted  educational  men,  among  whom 
Rev.  Edward  Thring,  have  made  bitter  opposition 
even  to  the  management  of  the  lower  schools  by 


64  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

the  Government.  "  For  the  first  time  in  English 
history,"  he  says  disdainfully,  "a  despotic  power 
lays  tracks  for  the  human  mind,  and  demands  that 
they  be  used  by  all ;  and,  furthermore,  that  all,  in 
the  name  of  freedom  and  enlightenment,  be  coerced 
to  pay  for  it." 

The  discussion  of  the  underlying  principle, 
whether  it  is  more  correct  and  safer  to  leave  the 
educated  classes  of  society  to  come  to  an  agreement 
among  themselves  as  to  the  scope  and  measure  of 
their  children's  education,  and  only  exercise  a  cer 
tain  control  by  means  of  examinations,  occasional 
refusal,  or  grant  of  certain  privileges,  or  whether 
detailed  prescriptions  and  minute  supervision  will 
lead  to  better  results  lies  outside  the  scope  of  this 
paper.  But  it  is  obvious  that  in  the  case  under  dis- 
cussion, where  girls'  education  is  concerned — a  thing 
which  is  and  naturally  can  be  undertaken  with  enthu- 
siasm only  by  women — absolute  freedom  of  action 
was  a  great  advantage  to  the  English  women.  That, 
however,  a  certain  uniformity  was  desirable,  such  as 
is  procured  by  governmental  supervision,  became 
clear  very  soon.  This  was  secured  by  founding  a 
society  of  great  extent.  In  1871  (chiefly  through 
the  endeavors  of  Mr.  William  Gray)  a  number  of 
men  and  women  came  together  and  founded  the 
National  Society  for  improving  the  Education  of 


GIRLS'  PUBLIC  DAY  SCHOOLS.  65 

Women  of  all  Classes.  This  long  title  was  later  on 
abbreviated  to  Women's  Education  Union.  Lord 
Littleton  interested  himself  vigorously  in  this  union, 
and  it  is  chiefly  owing  to  his  efforts  that  Princess 
Louise,  Marchioness  of  Lome  (the  sister  of  our 
Empress  Frederick,  whose  intense  interest  in  all 
educational  matters  she  shares)  consented  to  occupy 
the  chair.  She  has  since  indefatigably  worked  in 
behalf  of  the  society,  which  has  some  of  the  best 
names  of  England  on  its  roll  of  membership. 

One  of  the  main  objects  the  society  had  in  view 
was  the  establishment  of  good  public  day  schools 
for  girls — that  is,  day  schools  in  contradistinction  to 
boarding  schools.  To  this  end,  a  company  was 
formed  in  London,  the  Girls'  Public  Day  School 
Company,  which  opened  a  number  of  schools  after 
the  model  of  the  excellent  private  school  of  Miss 
Francis  Buss.  The  necessary  capital  was  subscribed 
rapidly,  and  now  that  the  company  has  thirty-two 
such  schools  in  activity  it  yields  a  considerable  divi- 
dend. Up  to  March,  1888,  these  schools  in  London 
had  20,S3T  enrolled  pupils,  32  lady  principals,  348 
class  teachers,  and  130  special  teachers.  The  salary  of 
the  principal  or  manager  consists  partly  of  a  fixed 
annual  sum,  partly  of  a  percentage  of  the  income, 
which  is  determined  by  the  number  of  pupils,  so 
that  it  may  vary  between  £300  and  £700  ($1,500 


66  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP   WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

and  $3,500).  Such  an  income  is  sufficient  for  a 
comfortable  living  even  in  England.  The  sum  total 
paid  for  salaries  was  for  1888  £66,618  ($333,090) ; 
and  for  scholarships  and  prizes  the  sum  of  £1,162 
($5,810)  was  paid.  That  certainly  is  a  private  en- 
terprise which  deserves  respect. 

This  example  was  soon  imitated  in  all  parts  of 
England.  Other  societies  were  founded  which  had 
essentially  the  same  object  in  view,  and  the  number 
of  high  schools  for  girls — that  is  the  commonly 
accepted  name — is  estimated  to  be  one  hundred  and 
fifty.  Their  number  is  steadily  increasing.  They 
exercise  a  healthy  influence  upon  the  private  schools, 
and  many  a  poor  private  school  has  given  way  to 
them. 

The  high  schools  had,  above  all,  the  intention  of 
removing  those  faults  that  the  former  girls'  schools 
had  justly  been  charged  with,  and  which  became  so 
glaring  by  the  examinations  mentioned  in  the  fore- 
going chapters — want  of  thoroughness  and  facility 
in  the  elements,  want  of  system,  negligence  and 
glittering  superficiality,  waste  of  time  in  favor  of 
mere  "accomplishments,"  utter  want  of  organiza- 
tion, etc.  It  can  not  be  doubted  that  this  has  been 
accomplished  ;  one  can  not  charge  the  present  girls' 
high  schools  with  the  foregoing  faults.  The  manag- 
ers (principals)  have  a  thorough  education ;  special 


NORMAL  SCHOOLS  FOR  WOMEN.  67 

studies  arc  not  insisted  upon  for  these  ladies.  On 
the  contrary,  it  is  thought  preferable  that  they 
should  have  an  education  which  would  enable  them 
to  estimate  the  value  of  special  studies  rather  than 
overestimate  them,  and  persons  are  preferred  who 
have  had  opportunities  to  learn  something  more 
than  the  routine  of  the  school-room.  For  the 
teachers  no  definitely  prescribed  preparation  is  re- 
quired and  no  examinations  are  obligatory  as  in  the 
state  public  schools  (the  so-called  "  board  schools  "). 
There  are,  however,  special  normal  schools  for 
female  teachers  of  middle  and  higher  schools  (in 
Cheltenham,  London,  and  Cambridge).  Many 
teachers  (their  number  is  increasing)  receive  their 
professional  education  here,  while  others,  notably 
those  for  the  higher  grades,  go  through  a  university 
course  and  take  the  place  of  the  former  male 
teachers  (university  graduates).  Some  of  them  pass 
the  examination  in  the  theory,  history,  and  practice 
of  education  arranged  for,  since  1880,  in  Cambridge 
and  in  London;  but  this  is  not  obligatory.  The 
teacher  may  acquire  her  knowledge  exclusively  in  a 
private  way ;  many  of  them,  especially  those  for 
modern  languages,  do  it  by  a  sojourn  in  foreign 
countries. 

The  Englishman  pays  great  attention  to  methods. 
Especially  for  the  German  methods  as  applied  in 


f,8  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

primary  schools  and  developed  in  such  a  high  de- 
gree, he  has  great  respect.  To  study  these  meth- 
ods male  and  female  teachers  come  to  Germany 
every  year  ;  the  best  that  can  be  found  is  collected 
and  made  use  of  after  their  return.  The  decided 
disinclination  against  the  often  made  proposition  to 
make  obligatory  a  certain  technical,  that  is,  profes- 
sional preparation  or  the  examinations  mentioned 
above,  has  its  cause  in  the  undeniable  fact  that  such 
an  institution  is  likely  to  terminate  in  routine 
derogatory  to  the  development  of  an  effective  indi- 
viduality. Hence  the  professional  training  and  the 
manner  of  acquiring  it  is  left  free.  Whether  that 
is  best  or  not  may  be  left  undecided  here.  Suffice  it 
to  say  that  the  arguments  brought  out  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  this  question  have  a  certain  justification. 
If  comparatively  rarely  pedagogical  mistakes  are 
noticed  in  these  schools,  and  rarely  violations  of 
educational  principles  (among  which  violations  we 
may  class  the  lecture  mania  of  the  academic  teacher 
in  Germany),  it  would  seem  as  though  great  care 
is  taken  in  the  selection  of  teachers  and  managers. 
During  my  visits  in  these  schools  I  nowhere  found 
a  case  of  lecturing  over  the  heads  of  the  pupils. 

In  a  lecture  on  English  girls'  schools  recently 
delivered  in  Berlin,  it  was  alleged  that  dictating 
played  an  important  role  in  them,  and  that  the 


METHODS  IN  FEMALE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.    69 

teachers  at  their  desks  were  surrounded  by  piles  of 
books — reference  and  text  books.  I  can  not  contra- 
dict this  experience  as  a  personal  one  ;  neither  can  I 
confirm  it,  since  within  the  time  of  my  visits  (I 
heard  about  fifty  to  sixty  lessons  in  these  schools 
and  English  colleges)  I  never  had  an  opportunity 
for  observing  it.  I  did  not  hear  a  single  sentence 
dictated.  It  seems  to  me  that  we  have  here  a  case 
of  too  liberal  application  of  a  few  individual  obser- 
vations. It  would  be  committing  the  same  error  if 
I  should  assert  nothing  was  ever  dictated  in  these 
girls'  schools.  For  in  the  old  English  school-system 
dictation  lessons  were  the  backbone  of  the  instruc- 
tion. I  suspect  the  evil  is  not  entirely  unknown 
even  among  us,  but  to-day  the  school  authorities  in 
England  condemn  it  strongly,  and,  in  fact,  all  me- 
chanical drilling.  Take  it  all  in  all,  the  instruction 
is  thorough  and  is  skillfully  given  ;  especially  in  the 
upper  grades  I  found  a  very  original  and  spirited 
manner  of  treating  the  subject  in  hand,  a  method 
which  would  take  up  a  difficulty  in  an  unusual 
manner  and  thus  awaken  interest. 

Among  the  professional  women  in  England — 
teachers,  managers,  physicians — whom  I  have  had 
occasion  to  observe  in  large  meetings  that  needed 
skillful  management,  parliamentary  and  otherwise, 
one  will  invariably  notice  now  a  greater  independ- 


70  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

ence  and  originality  than  was  wont  to  be  found 
twenty  years  ago  in  the  typical  English  lady.  Her 
more  thorough  education,  her  energetic  work — in 
which  she  is  supported  by  good  and  wise  men — has 
matured  a  self-consciousness  and  a  large-hearted 
view  of  the  world  which  contrasts  favorably  with 
the  abhorred  ''emancipation"  in  manners  of  former 
times.  It  is  simply  the  proof  of  our  thesis.  "  Man 
grows  with  his  ever  higher  aims."  To  us  this 
opens  a  delightful  view.  Our  time  will  come — 
and  we  need  not  fear  competition  as  soon  as  the 
one  thing  is  granted  to  us  that  is  needed — to  call 
into  activity  the  latent  powers,  liberty  for  labor  and 
a  suitable  field  for  it. 

Though  the  circumstances  mentioned  prove  their 
reformatory  power  first  upon  women  who  stand 
within  the  professions,  it  is  unquestionable  that  a 
much  more  penetrating  reform  will  result  from 
them  upon  social  life,  especially  since  many 
women  of  the  highest  classes  evince  the  intensest 
interest  in  the  movement.  If  social  and  caste 
prejudices,  religious  intolerance,  and,  above  all, 
deeply  rooted  traditions  have  hitherto  played  so 
important  a  rdle  in  England  (otherwise  politically 
ao  free),  the  women  may  be  said  to  be  the  cause 
-M;hat  is,  the  narrow-minded  women  who  grew 
up  in  prejudices  of  all  kinds  But  it  is  the 


SCHOOLS  MANAGED  BY  WOMEN.  71 

women  also  who  have  caused  or  begun  the  happy 
reform. 

But  let  us  go  back  to  our  subject,  the  high 
schools.  Let  me  try  to  sketch  their  organization 
and  the  system  of  instruction  found  in  them,  and 
give  utterance  to  my  opinion  concerning  them. 

A  German  visitor  is  struck  by  two  things  at 
once.  First,  of  course,  as  I  said  before,  the  man- 
agement lies  entirely  in  the  hands  of  women ;  sec- 
ond, the  selection  of  studies. 

At  the  head  of  every  English  high  school  stands 
a  female  principal.  The  teachers  of  the  school  are 
women  also,  though  for  some  branches  men  are  en- 
gaged who  stand  in  no  very  close  connection  with 

o    O  •/ 

the  school.  Male  teachers  are  not  prohibited  on 
principle,  but  men  are  never  engaged  if  suitable 
women  can  be  had.  This  holds  good  only  for  these 
girls'  high  schools;  in  colleges  attended  by  adult 
women  the  branches  are  about  equally  divided 
among  male  and  female  professors.  In  the  univer- 
sities the  principal  studies  are  all  represented  by 
men,  since  the  lectures  are  designed  for  and  attend- 
ed by  both  sexes — a  system  which  is  to  be  approved. 
Well,  how  does  the  system  do  that  is  followed  in 
the  middle  schools  ?  Can  women  really  alone,  with 
out  male  assistance,  manage  large  public  schools  ? 
The  actual  results  leave  it  without  a  shadow  of 


72  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

doubt.  The  administrative  business,  for  which  in 
Germany  even  well-meaning  representatives  of  the 
interests  of  women  propose  a  technical  manager,  is 
conducted  admirably.  The  discipline  is  excellent 
and  is  maintained  with  few  and  simple  means.  A 
notable  air  of  good-breeding  prevails  amid  all  harm- 
less gayety,  and  a  complete  absence  of  that  defiant 
tone  noticed  among  girls  in  schools  managed  by 
men.  The  clock-work  of  a  large  school  organism 
moves  with  noiseless  steadiness ;  the  intercourse 
between  teachers  and  pupils  is  in  by  far  the  greatest 
number  of  cases  friendly  and  hearty ;  the  moral 
conduct  is  excellent.  Strict  honesty  toward  the 
teachers  is  a  requisite  of  the  good  tone  of  these 
schools  ;  this  honesty  is  deserved  by  the  confidence 
offered  to  the  children  as  long  as  they  do  not  show 
themselves  unworthy  of  it. 

If  the  picture  I  have  been  delineating  differs 
advantageously  from  that  which  German  colleagues 
often  present  of  female  teachers  in  tl^eir  schools, 
there  is  a  good  cause  for  it.  The  English  teacher 
and  principal  enjoys  unquestioned  authority,  exter- 
nally and  internally.  In  German  public  girls'  schools 
the  older  students  know,  or  instinctively  feel,  that 
the  education  of  the  female  teacher,  obtained  in  a 
normal  school,  is  despised  by  the  male  teachers  who 
obtained  theirs  in  the  university.  It  is  too  obvious 


MEN   VERSUS  WOMEN.  73 

that  the  women  are  found  only  in  subordinate  posi- 
tions (exceptions  not  counted)  of  the  school  organ- 
ism.* No  wonder  that  the  pupils  sometimes  refuse 
them  the  respect  which  is  offered  as  a  matter  of 
course  in  England,  where  the  female  teachers  are 
provided  with  the  highest  professional  education. 
A  harsher  tone  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  than 
would  otherwise  be  necessary  is  the  inevitable  re- 
sult. When  women  can  teach,  as  in  England,  and 
God  be  thanked  in  German  private  schools  also,  as 
long  as  life  is  granted  them,  the  remark  of  Her- 
mann Oeser  holds  good:  "I  take  it  for  granted 
that  many  a  female  teacher,  who  asserts  her  author- 
ity by  a  sharp  tongue,  if  her  male  colleagues  do 
not  trust  in  her  disciplinary  power,  would  under 
changed  and  better  circumstances  not  take  love  for 
weakness,  nor  rigidity  in  discipline  for  strength." 
Let  us  create  such  circumstances ;  let  us  give  our 
teachers  a  sufficient  education,  and  outwardly  that 

*  In  No.  7  of  Buchner's  Journal  for  Female  Education  (1888) 
a  manager  of  a  girls'  school  remarks  incidentally :  It  is  well 
known  that  female  teachers  in  higher  public  schools  for  girls 
have  no  leading  influence.  The  remark  is  in  harmony  with  the 
actual  facts,  alas  !  To  a  foreigner  this  must  appear  like  irony. 
Female  teachers  to  have  no  decisive  influence  in  girls'  schools  ! 
This  Journal  for  Female  Education,  compared  with  the  more 
liberal  conduct  of  the  other  journal  entitled  Girls'  Schools  (Hes- 
sel  and  Doerr).  has  generally  taken  a  position  in  regard  to 
female  teachers  which  can  not  be  harmonized  with  its  title. 
But  its  manner  in  arguing  can  only  be  useful  to  our  cause. 


74  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

influential  position  to  which  they  are  entitled,  and 
the  lamentation  of  vindictiveness,  acidity,  want  of 
discipline,  or  whatever  is  charged  against  them  by 
their  colleagues,  will  soon  be  silenced. 

Hence,  that  girls  should  be  managed  by  women, 
that  women  should  play  the  leading  roles  in  girls' 
education,  can  only  be  approved  ;  the  question  is, 
Is  the  exclusive  appointment  of  female  teachers 
desirable  ?  I. have  repeatedly  asserted  that  I  am  not 
of  that  opinion.  I  value  the  acuteness  of  intellect 
in  man  too  highly  to  deprive  our  girls  of  it;  I 
acknowledge  that  the  instruction  given  by  man  is, 
owing  to  his  peculiar  and  to  the  girl  unfamiliar 
mode  of  thinking,  beneficial  and  stimulating ;  pro- 
vided, always,  he  moves  in  domains  in  which  the 
individuality  of  woman  does  not  appear  necessary ; 
that  is  to  say,  provided  that  the  man  does  not  teach 
branches  for  which,  with  untrained  girls,  similarity 
of  thought  and  feeling  and  perfect  comprehension 
of  the  girls'  nature  are  indispensable  conditions  of 
success.  Hence  I  should  desire  a  co-operation  of 
men  and  women  in  the  instruction  of  girls,  of  course 
in  such  a  manner  that  women  should  have  the 
authoritative  positions,  as  would  seem  but  natural. 
This  condition  of  affairs  actually  exists  in  German 
private  schools  for  girls,  and  the  satisfaction  it  finds 
justifies  it. 


OVER-VALUATION  OP  MEN.  75 

Compare  the  two  systems,  and  we  shall  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  English  public  girls'  high 
schools  are  preferable  to  the  German.  Better  far, 
it  would  seem,  to  place  the  growing  generation  of 
girls  in  the  hands  of  women  entirely — a  partiality 
which  finds  an  analogy  in  boys'  schools  exclusively 
managed  by  men — than  the  unnatural  state  of  affairs 
which  puts  men  into  leading  positions  and  the 
women  into  subordinate  ones,  and  leaves  the  latter 
without  scientific  professional  training.  We  have 
thus  far  in  Germany  bred  among  female  pupils  an 
over-valuation  of  men  and  an  under-valuation  of 
women  teachers  and  of  female  capacities.  This  is 
injurious  to  the  girls'  development  of  individuality, 
portentous  also  to  the  fulfillment  of  their  future 
duties.  The  development  of  the  noblest  female 
qualities,  which  is  always  dependent  upon  good 
example,  is  thus  not  only  not  facilitated  but  even 
hindered.  Therein  lies  the  great  wrong  done  our 
higher  public  girls'  schools. 

Considered  as  an  experiment,  the  English  system 
is  also  very  interesting.  That  which  in  Germany  is 
denied  not  only  by  men  but  also  by  women  (this 
proves  how  little  they  study  the  schools  of  foreign 
countries),  namely,  the  possibility,  is  in  England 
actually  in  existence.  Women  there  manage  with- 
out the  least  male  assistance  large  girls'  schools 


76  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP   WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

which  are  in  no  way  behind  our  public  schools,  yes, 
even  give  a  scientific  education  more  extended  than 
ours.  Women  there  prove  fully  competent  for  the 
tasks  arising  from  organization,  instruction,  admin- 
istration and  discipline.  They  do  not  shrink  from 
addressing  large  assemblies  of  pupils,  for  which 
German  pedagogues  consider  the  women  incapable. 
All  that  can  be  observed  in  Germany  also,  since 
large  private  schools  are  here  managed  by  women  ; 
but  they  are  always  mentioned  as  "  exceptions,"  and 
it  is  taken  for  granted  that  a  man  must  necessarily 
be  their  regent.  Such  fictions  can  not  be  upheld  in 
the  light  of  facts  as  reported. 

The  management  by  women  makes  itself  felt  to 
the  German  visitor  of  an  English  high  school  in 
some  characteristic  peculiarities.  It  is  to  be  traced 
back  to  female  influence  that  a  society  has  been 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  decorating  school-rooms. 
It  is  the  intention  of  depriving  them  of  the  barrack- 
like  appearance.  The  pupils  themselves  start  win- 
dow-gardens (with  pot -plants),  or  they  collect 
minerals  and  shells  or  adorn  their  class-rooms  with 
pictures.  Even  the  fireplace  is  filled  in  summer 
with  groups  of  ferns  or  large  leafy  plants.  Is  it  not 
as  though  we  heard  Montaigne  say,  "  The  school- 
room floor  should  be  strewn  with  flowers  "  ? 

Attention  is  paid  to  everything  pertaining  to 


PECULIAR  FEATURES.  77 

health.  The  school-room  furniture  is  made  ac- 
cording to  the  best  system.  Each  pupil  has  her 
own  desk  and  seat  built  according  to  hygienic  rule's. 
Excellent  devices  for  ventilation  furnish  fresh  air, 
which  is  "consumed"  in  England  in  incredible 
quantities.  The  present  writer  admits  that  her 
German  constitution  proved  unequal  to  the  cross- 
fire of  two  or  three  powerful  draughts  that  played 
upon  her  during  her  presence. 

As  in  colleges,  so  in  high  schools  much  is  done 
for  bodily  exercise  ;  this  is  partly  done  by  gymnas- 
tics in  which  all  the  girls  are  exercised  daily,  though 
it  may  not  be  longer  than  half  an  hour.  Especial 
care  is  devoted  to  cleanliness.  The  arrangements  in 
wash  and  dressing  rooms  are  exemplary.  One  ex- 
traordinarily practical  provision  seems  to  be,  that 
every  child  is  obliged  to  take  off  her  boots  and  put 
on  a  pair  of  low  shoes  without  heels  when  she  comes 
to  school.  These  slippers  are  placed  in  a  long  row 
of  murbered  pigeon-holes  when  the  children  go 
home.  Of  course  the  better  filled  English  pocket- 
book  explains  many  things  which  "  we  can  not  un- 
derstand." 

Some  few  tilings  in  these  high  schools,  which 
may  not  be  peculiarly  English,  yet  are  in  vogue 
all  over  England,  did  not  find  my  approval ;  thus, 
for  instance,  frequent  examinations,  public  rewards 


78  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

and  prizes,  "  golden  rolls  "  (merit  lists)  and  similar 
things,  all  seemed  to  me  hazardous.  Some  princi- 
pals have  greatly  reduced  them  in  number,  and, 
since  these  things  are  not  the  result  of  uniform  rules, 
it  is  possible  to  reform  readily.  But  public  opinion 
clings  to  examinations  and  the  marking  system  so 
pertinaciously  that  it  will  not  do  to  remove  them  ; 
examinations  at  least  will  be  left  to  determine  pro- 
motions, and  hence  influence  instruction. 

The  courses  of  study  of  English  high  schools 
require,  like  the  German  gymnasium,  an  attendance 
till  the  eighteenth  or  nineteenth  year  of  age,  and 
since  the  English  girl  does  not  enter  the  social 
world  before  that  age,  she  is  frequently  kept  in 
school,  though  she  may  be  excused  from  a  few 
branches. 

As  to  the  instruction  itself,  it  must  be  stated  that 
the  very  first  elementary  work,  reading,  writing  and 
number  work,  is  not  done  in  these  schools,  but  in 
Kindergartens  (sic!  Translator),  which  are  but 
rarely  in  organic  connection  with  the  preparatory 
departments  of  high  schools.  The  pupils  enter  the 
latter  when  eight  years  old.  During  the  first  few 
years  of  the  high  school  course,  about  the  same 
branches  are  taught  as  with  us,  only  that  English 
does  not  play  the  same  rdle  that  with  us  German 
plays.  The  number  of  hours  per  week  is  smaller, 


NORMAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  79 

since  Saturday  is  a  holiday.  When  about  twelve 
years  old  the  pupils  take  up  Latin  and  mathematics, 
to  which  branches  an  ever  increasing  amount  of 
time  and  energy  is  devoted,  although  not  quite  as 
much  as  is  required  in  boys'  schools.  The  time  is 
gained  at  the  expense  of  the  instruction  in  the 
mother  tongue  and  foreign  modern  languages,  fre- 
quently also  at  the  expense  of  history.  A  normal 
course  of  study  has  not  been  prescribed  for  all  the 
girls'  high  schools,  since  it  was  deemed  wiser  to  leave 
free  elbow-room  to  the  individuality  of  the  mana- 
gers. That  despite  this  there  is  an  approximation 
of  uniformity  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  pupils 
frequently  submit  to  the  "  junior  and  senior  "  exam- 
inations, and  the  fact  that  many  of  these  students, 
after  graduating  from  the  high  school,  enter  the 
university,  explains  the  preponderance  of  classical 
and  mathematical  studies  in  the  upper  grades. 

The  same  Latin  and  Greek  authors  are  read 
(Greek  is  an  optional  study)  as  with  us.  In  geom- 
etry Euclid  is  finished  to  Book  XI ;  in  algebra  they 
go  to  quadratic  equations.  In  the  upper  grades 
many  studies  are  optional. 

"  One  has  every  reason,"  says  Dr.  C.  Schoell  in 
Schmidt's  Encyclopaedic  (2d  edition,  vol.  3,  p.  1130), 
"  to  be  satisfied  with  the  results  of  these  schools. 
They  insist  upon  thoroughness  in  instruction  and 


80  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

shunning  mere  empty  show.  The  results  of  ex- 
amination in  the  different  branches,  such  as  Bible 
knowledge,  geography,  mathematics,  German,  have 
been,  so  far,  very  satisfactory.  .  .  .  Experience  has 
proved  that  good  women  do  not  fall  behind  men  in 
circumspect  management,  in  discipline,  and  in  im- 
parting knowledge."  This  expression,  being  that 
of  a  man,  has  double  value  inasmuch  as  Schoell's 
criticism  of  English  schools  is  generally  very  sharp. 
But  there  is  one  reflection  in  regard  to  these 
high  schools  which  I  can  not  dismiss.  They  have  a 
right,  certainly,  to  expect  to  be  judged  by  their  re- 
sults, and  these  consist  unquestionably  in  a  thorough 
intellectual  education.  ISTo  doubt  that  much  can  be 
done  and  that  much  is  done.  It  is  precisely  what 
has  been  aimed  at  and  what  has  been  acccoinplished 
in  boys'  schools.  But  is  that  system  justified  ? 
Should  a  formal  intellectual  education  be  end  and 
aim  of  any  school  ?  I  must  go  farther  back  to  an- 
swer that  question. 


CHAPTER  V. 

MORAL   EDUCATION   IN   ENGLAND   AND   GERMANY. 

THERE  is  a  charming  French  fairy-tale  told 
by  Jean  Mace*.  It  tells  of  a  little  boy  who  was 
always  the  first  in  school  and  had  learned  wonder- 
ful things  there :  he  knew  when  Rome  was  founded, 
could  distinguish  a  principal  sentence  from  a  rela- 
tive clause,  and  knew  the  governmental  depart- 
ments of  the  Loire  by  memory  as  though  he  had 
them  on  a  string.  He  had  a  little  girl  friend  who 
had  learned  but  one  thing:  " II  faut  obeir  au  bon 
Dieu  et  etre  J>on  comme  lid  avec  tout  le  monde  " 
(One  must  obey  the  good  God  and  be  good  like 
Himself  to  every  one).  The  boy,  of  course,  soon 
finds  that  his  little  friend  is  hardly  a  suitable  play- 
mate for  him.  A  kind  fairy  takes  both  by  the 
hand  and  leads  them  first  to  a  great  historian,  then 
to  the  foremost  authoress  of  the  land ;  finally  she 
transports  them  through  time  and  space  into  future 
ages,  and  into  the  center  of  Africa,  which  then  is 
the  most  civilized  country  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 


82   HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

Everywhere  the  boy  is  abashed.  The  historian 
shows  him  how  little  his  knowledge  about  the 
foundation  of  Rome  is  confirmed ;  the  authoress 
laughs  at  his  statements  of  grammar-rules,  and  no- 
body knows  anything  of  the  departments  of  the 
Loire  in  those  future  ages,  simply  because  they 
have  disappeared  during  a  great  earthquake  in  the 
year  2500  after  Christ  But  every  one  bows  down 
before  what  the  little  girl  has  learned,  and  even 
after  thousands  of  years  the  highest  wisdom  is : 
"  Ilfaut  obeir  au  ton  Dieu  et  etre  bon  comme  lui 
avec  tout  le  monde." 

That  is,  reduced  to  a  formula :  Moral  truth  is 
more  important  than  knowledge. 

But  that  does  not  end  the  matter.  The  ques- 
tion now  arises  :  What  is  moral  ?  How  far  and 
how  can  it  influence  the  will  of  the  child  ?  And, 
lastly,  what  has  school  to  do  with  it  ?  What  is 
moral  ?  The  child  in  the  fairy-tale  says  :  "  II  faut 
obeir  au  bon  Dieu  et  etre  bon  comme  lui  avec  tout 
le  monde."  The  philosopher  says  :  Moral  is  that 
which  has  become  the  practice  of  the  majority,  and 
by  means  of  which  the  greatest  possible  happiness 
is  secured  to  mankind. 

The  two  sentences  are  related  to  each  other  like 
the  ideal  and  the  attainable.  To  be  good  like  God 
to  every  one  is  acting  to  man  like  Providence.  It 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OP  MORALITY.  83 

presupposes  divine  perfection,  omniscience,  and  in- 
infinite  wisdom.  That  is  unattainable,  though  it 
should  direct  our  aspirations.  And  it  is  well  that 
humanity  should  forever  have  an  unattainable  aim, 
an  ideal.  The  way  to  it  is  shown  by  those  who 
have  a  heart  full  of  divine  pitying  love  They  are 
the  greatest  of  mankind.  To  tluern  we  look  up ; 
we  honor  them  like  gods  ;  "  their  example  teaches 
us  to  believe  in  God." 

To  do  what  has  become  the  practice  of  the 
majority  and  will  secure  the  greatest  possible  hap- 
piness to  all — that  is  attainable,  at  least  in  thought 
The  principles  according  to  which  we  must  fashion 
our  actions  to  gain  that,  end,  men  seek  by  hard 
intellectual  work ;  in  their  coarsest  form  the  statute 
law  expresses  them.  The  errors  and  faults  of  the 
law  make  appear  the  idea  or  conception  of  moral- 
ity for  the  time  being,  which  idea  always  depends 
upon  the  intellectual  standpoint  reached.  This 
leads  us  on  to  morality,  religion,  science. 

The  close  relation  between  morality  and  intel- 
lect is  a  truth  which  the  fairy-story  can  not  teach 
us ;  in  this,  as  in  so  many  other  things,  a  sharp 
definition  must  be  made  possible  by  analysis,  be- 
fore a  conclusion  by  synthesis  is  reached.  For  us 
adults,  however,  the  statement  that  for  true  moral- 
ity not  only  will-power  but  also  judgment  is  neces- 


34  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

sary,  and  a  correct  estimation  of  things,  persons, 
actions,  and  ideas,  seems  a  hackneyed  truism.  An 
auto  da  fe  does  not  appear  moral  to  us,  though  it 
be  dictated  by  the  purest  of  convictions ;  even  the 
senseless  self-sacrifice  of  a  mother  who  by  her  ac- 
tion brings  up  an  egotistical  weakling  of  a  son, 
can  not  appear  moral  to  us,  however  much  we  may 
value  self-sacrifice. 

Mankind  in  its  infancy  could  believe  the  moral 
and  intellectual  parts  of  its  spiritual  life  as  inde- 
pendent of  each  other,  we  know  to-day  they'  can 
hasten  progress  only  if  combined  :  "  That  we  want 
to  do  our  duty  is  the  moral  part ;  that  we  know 
how  to  do  it  is  the  intellectual  part.  The  closer  the 
two  are  connected  with  each  other,  the  greater  will 
be  the  harmony  with  which  they  act,  and  the  more 
minutely  the  means  correspond  with  the  object  in 
view,  the  more  completely  our  life's  destiny  will 
be  reached,  and  the  more  securely  the  conditions 
for  further  progress  of  mankind  are  secured." 
Thus  speaks  Buckle  in  his  principal  chapters  on 
this  point. 

Though  logical  thinking  and  a  wide  intellectual 
horizon  are  essential  factors  of  genuine  moral  ac- 
tion, they  by  no  means  alone  lead  us  to  morality. 
If  they  did,  intellectual  culture  would  not,  since 
Rousseau,  have  been  so  often  coupled  with  the  dir- 


RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTING   A  REQUISITE.       85 

\ 

est  immorality.  There  must  be  added  to  intel- 
lectual culture  a  habit  of  applying  it  in  the  do- 
minion of  morality — that  is,  the  intellectual  factor 
must  -be  brought  to  the  other  chief  factor :  moral 
will-power.  And  that  leads  us  to  the  second  ques- 
tion :  How  far  and  in  what  way  can  the  will-power 
be  influenced  in  the  child  ? 

The  answer  lies  in  the  foregoing.  Such  an  in- 
fluence can  be  exercised  directly  through  religious 
instruction,  but  it  can,  indirectly,  take  place  also 
in  a  roundabout  way  through  the  intellect ;  the 
proper  comprehension  must  be  awakened.  In  nei- 
ther case  must  instruction  be  abstract.  The  child 
dislikes  preaching.  But  it  is  open  always  to  the 
effect  of  imagination  and  enthusiasm.  Hence  the 
great  effect  of  examples,  symbols,  and  poetry. 
Moral  will-power  is  best  kindled  by  examples  of 
high  noble  men  in  history,  both  Biblical  and  pro- 
fane, and  in  poetry. 

Our  third  question  is  :  "What  has  school  to  do 
with  it  ?  Many  think  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  it. 
With  them  school  is  a  knowledge-factory,  and  is  to 
offer  even  that  which  prepares  for  the  children's 
future  callings ;  hence,  with  them  school  is  de- 
signed to  be  professional.  According  to  the  great- 
est educators,  however,  it  has  an  entirely  different 
duty  to  perform,  and.  that  duty  becomes  all  the 


86  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

more  imperative  since  family  influence  is. weaken- 
ing in  an  alarming  degree.  School  can  systemat- 
ically influence  the  development  of  will-power  and 
aid  the  liberation  of  the  thinking  power  ;  it  is  done 
best  by  inducing  the  pupils  to  observe  human  life 
and  action.  Human  life  is  to  be  the  object  of  our 
knowledge,  the  intellect  is  to  be  trained,  true  judg- 
ment to  be  gained  by  studying  life ;  in  the  course 
of  human  life  the  effect  of  moral  laws  is  shown. 

Some  time  ago,  I  advocated  the  teaching  of  a 
special  branch  of  study,  "  Knowledge  of  life " ;  if 
not  the  name,  the  substance  should  be  ha$  in  school. 
The  frame  for  it  is  found  in  different  branches  of 
study  commonly  taught  which  might  inclose  and 
organically  connect  elementary,  ethical,  economical, 
social  and  technical  notions  and  ideas.  In  instruc- 
tion in  religion  we  may  be  sure  of  moral  compre- 
hension as  well  as  moral  effect,  if  we  do  not  teach 
dogmatically,  but  show  directly  the  influence  of  di- 
vine life  upon  human  life ;  that  is  to  say,  place  the 
facts  of  conscience,  of  charity,  of  joy  in  the  good, 
etc.,  in  the  center  of  school  life,  and  show  their  ef- 
fect in  the  life  of  the  child,  in  the  life  of  the  world 
which  surrounds  it ;  teach  the  child  to  feel  the  eye 
of  God  in  every  moment  of  its  life.  In  history  we 
can  practice  both  the  intellect  and  the  moral  will- 
power, by  making  the  pupils  familiar  with  the 


CENTERS  OF  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY.    87 

events  and  conditions  of  civilization  in  past  and 
present,  and  making  them  see  or  comprehend  the 
things  as  in  a  bird's-eye  view  in  which  each  appears 
in  its  true  relation  to  others ;  by  awakening  a  clear 
insight  into  the  facts  that  everywhere  in  the  end 
the  great  moral  ideas  are  victorious.  In  instruc- 
tion in  German,  finally,  the  best  opportunity  is 
offered  to  discuss  all  that  without  restraint,  con- 
necting it  with  the  ideals  of  our  great  poets. 

Thus  the  school  will  teach  how  to  grasp  and 
understand  life,  by  rising  upon  a  higher  level  from 
which  the  ethical  can  be  viewed  without  obstruc- 
tion. Hence  it  would  seem  to  me  essential  to  make 
instruction  in  religion,  history,  and  the  mother 
tongue,  the  centers  of  the  course  of  study  and  the 
daily  practice.*  That  which  is  human  and  moral 
is  thus  placed  into  the  center  of  the  various  ideas 
awakened  by  daily  instruction ;  both  mind  and  heart 
are  formed  in  contact  with  it;  intellectual  power 
and  moral  character  are  both  fed  by  it,  and  thus 
again,  as  so  often,  idealism  "  hits  the  center."  For 
if  we  develop  the  power  to  think,  and  the  moral 

*  This  theory  seems  to  me  equally  well  adapted  for  boys' 
schools  ;  I  acknowledge,  that  it  may  not  be  realized  there  soon, 
these  schools  being,  as  it  were,  shaped  by  outer  circumstances ; 
but  in  our  girls'  schools  we  do  not  have  to  fear  anything  that 
might  hinder  us  in  the  application  of  purely  pedagogical  prin- 
ciples. 


88  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

character,  we  train  much  better  for  actual  life  than 
if  we  fill  the  head  with  sterile,  positive  knowledge. 
At  this  latter  procedure  Mace's  fairy-tale  is  really 
aimed.  Positive  knowledge  comes  by  itself,  since 
we  deal  with  positive  material  alone;  thinking  is 
learned  from  facts  alone.  These,  however,  will  be 
retained  better,  and  if  lost  regained  more  easily,  if 
they  are  comprehended  in  connection  with  one  an- 
other, if  worked  by  independent  mental  activity 
into  a  homogeneous  whole ;  indeed,  vastly  better 
are  they  retained  than  when  they  are  offered  in 
fragments,  or  detached  bits,  and  imposed  upon  a 
mind  that  does  not  desire  them. 

But  here  is  the  difficulty.  It  is  infinitely  more 
difficult  to  find  teachers  who  are  able  to  thus  con- 
duct the  ethical  branches,  than  to  find  them  for 
mere  or  purely  intellectual  branches,  such  as  natural 
history  and  science,  mathematics  and  foreign  lan- 
guages. To  teach  these  latter  branches  a  good  head 
is  necessary,  while  for  the  former  a  thoroughly  cult- 
ured and  harmoniously  developed  person  is  needed. 
Many  teachers  to  whom  are  intrusted  the  ethical 
branches  do  not  know  what  to  do  with  them.  In 
many  schools,  girls'  as  well  as  boys'  schools,  dog- 
matic religion  is  taught,  and  philological  nonsense 
during  the  lessons  in  language ;  history  here  consists 
of  cramming  facts  and  cut  and  dried  opinions  into 


OBJECTIONS  MET.  g0 

the  memory.  Indeed,  such  teaching  is  worse  than 
none  at  all,  for  both  mind  and  heart  suffer  under  it, 
the  moral  sense  is  left  dormant  and  the  intellect  is 
blunted ;  the  mind  is  thus  accustomed  to  play  with 
formulas  which  later  on  are  positive  obstacles  for  in- 
dependent judgment.  Whatever  else  may  be  its 
faults,  a  real  intellectual  training  would  escape  such 
jugglery. 

Another  more  important  reason  is  advanced  in 
opposition  to  the  emphasis  given  the  ethical  and  in 
favor  of  purely  intellectual  branches.  The  ethical 
branches  exercise  a  most  powerful  influence  upon 
the  development  of  character.  A  strong  individual- 
ity— and  only  such  a  one  influences  pupils — will 
always  impress  its  own  views  and  opinions  in  relig- 
ion, history,  and  poetry,  despite  all  its  efforts  at  ob- 
jectivity ;  hence  will  influence  children  even  more 
strongly  and  more  lastingly  than  home  or  parents. 
How  many  fathers  and  mothers  must  feel  that  the 
spiritual  life  of  their  children  is  withdrawn  from 
their  influence,  especially  during  the  later  years  of 
the  school  course !  Wherever  the  strength  of  a  sys- 
tem is  there  also  is  its  weakness.  This  suggesting 
of  thoughts  and  awakening  of  impulses  in  school, 
it  is  very  obvious,  may  be  a  blessing  to  the  entire 
nation  ;  it  may  also  be  a  curse.  The  recognition  of 
this  fact  has  given  rise  to  the  movement  of  abolish- 


90  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

ing  instruction  in  religion  in  the  schools,  and  this 
only  enables  us  to  understand  it. 

But  this  example  also  points  out  the  real  cause 
of  a  possible  danger.  It  can  only  arise  when  en- 
deavors are  made  to  lead  ethical  instruction  in 
school  toward  a  certain  direction  by  decrees  and 
regulations,  combined  with  a  system  of  promo- 
tions and  official  slights  tending  to  secure  that 
direction.  The  history  of  public  education  has 
recorded  such  periods  ;  one  of  them  is  still  vividly 
remembered.  If  in  this  way  free  spirit  is  fettered, 
ethical  instruction  is  made  to  serve  special  pur- 
poses; if  it  is  obliged  to  accomodate  itself  to  the 
vacillations  and  ever-changing  views  of  the  ruling 
powers,  if  sentiments  are  to  be  made  uniform  and 
to  be  licensed,  then,  indeed,  a  system  which  pays 
exclusive  attention  to  the  intellectual  branches 
would  be  preferable.  But  the  other  system  is  dan- 
gerous only  in  the  case  mentioned.  If  a  certain 
liberty  is  granted  to  individuality,  there  will  never 
be  any  real  danger.  Individualities  always  stimu- 
late; they  alone  can  draw  heart  to  heart,  because 
they  have  heart  themselves.  The  one-sidedness  of 
one  individuality  is  offset  by  that  of  another.  The 
pupil  feels  all  through  his  school-life  that  he  has 
contact  with  human  beings,  men  with  a  spiritual 
life  peculiarly  their  own,  men  of  holy  convictions, 


TENDENCY  TOWARD  INDEPENDENCE.         91 

not  merely  figure-heads  and  puppets.  A  school 
eystein  can  rise  only  with  outspoken  individuality  ; 
it  can  remain  on  its  height  only  when  respecting 
individuality.  It  is  a  gratifying  sign  of  the  increas- 
ing consideration  which  the  necessity  of  independ- 
ence and  individual  importance  finds  in  modern 
times  when  we  see  that  even  in  military  circles  the 
spirit  of  the  leaders  is  liberated  by  the  abolishment 
of  rigid  forms,  and  thus  made  capable  of  self-active 
decision,  that  even  for  the  private  soldier  close  con- 
nection with  others  in  columns  is  not  advised  any 
longer.  Everywhere  we  see  the  tendency  toward 
independent  self-action.  How  much  more  is  that 
necessity  desirable  in  a  school  system  where  the 
justifiable  individuality  of  independent  minds 
should  have  free  play,  in  order  to  secure  the  great- 
est possible  effect.  It  should,  at  last,  be  comper- 
hended  that  "  a  scattered  line  "  in  the  great  battle 
culture  is  fighting  is  preferable  to  "  a  closed  line  "  ; 
uniformity  in  scientific  accomplishments  is  thereby 
as  little  endangered  as  the  uniform  technical  train- 
ing of  the  soldiers. 

It  seems  to  me  very  desirable  to  give  into  the 
hands  of  the  pupil  a  weapon  which  enables  him  in 
ever-increasing  individuality  to  meet  his  teacher; 
his  mind  must  be  liberated,  so  that  he  may  acquire 
a  control,  as  it  were,  a  judgment,  of  what  the 


92  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

teacher  says ;  jurare  in  verba  magistri  (swearing 
by  the  word  of  the  teacher)  must  be  prevented. 
That  is  done  best  by  thorough,  formative  training 
by  means  of  the  intellectual  branches  of  study. 
But  to  place  them  in  the  center  of  instruction  is 
not  advisable,  because  they  engender  a  certain  cold- 
ness of  heart  and  foster  an  egotism  which  is  inca- 
pable of  genuine  enthusiasm.  True  and  thorough 
culture  is  always  caused  through  contemplation  of 
humanity  and  life;  if  in  combination  with  that 
the  natural  sciences  receive  due  attention  (since 
spiritual  life  can  only  be  comprehended  in  con- 
nection with  physical  life,  and  man  only  in  con- 
nection with  nature)  it  would  give,  in  my  opinion, 
genuine  humanities.  That  such  a  system  may  do 
injury  does  not  lessen  the  truth  of  the  principles 
upon  which  it  rests,  for  every  system  may  be 
abused.  Nor  is  the  fact  that  it  will  have  good 
results  only  in  the  hands  of  good  teachers  of  great 
weight ;  for  though  there  are  few  Gertrudes,  yet 
Pestalozzi's  thoughts  are  unassailable. 

This  humane  culture,  offered  to  boys  chiefly 
by  men,  to  girls  chiefly  by  women,  would  be  my 
ideal  of  school  education.  Because  the  ethical 
branches  have  great  power  over  the  emotions  and 
an  absolute  influence  upon  the  development  of 
character,  I  claim  them  for  female  teachers  in  girls' 


ETHICAL  CULTURE  IMPONDERABLE.          93 

schools.  That  but  few  female  teachers  as  yet  un- 
derstand the  importance  of  these  branches  may  be 
seen  from  the  naive  astonishment  expressed  among 
them  at  my  choice. 

If  we  compare  the  German  and  the  English 
girls'  schools,  it  is  seen  that  we  lay  more  stress 
upon  the  ethical,  the  Englishmen  more  upon  in- 
tellectual education.  Both  may  have  gone  a  little 
into  excess,  but,  take  all  in  all,  I  prefer  our  side. 
To  prove  the  value  of  the  German  system  in  its 
results  is  perhaps  impossible,  from  the  fact  that  it 
has  not  had  a  proper  chance  to  show  its  results. 
And,  in  fact,  it  seems  to  me  doubtful  whether  the 
proof  can  ever  be  furnished.  Who  will  trace  the 
subtle  threads  that  unite  to  cause  a  moral  result? 
Human  beings  can  not  be  furnished  to  order  after 
models.  Individuality  and  environments  will  de- 
cide whether  the  seeds  we  sow  will  take  root. 
Regardless  of  that  we  must  work  on,  the  result, 
an  average  result,  will  not  be  wanting,  though  it 
be  not  always  tangible.  Ethical  culture  belongs  to 
the  imponderable  fluids. 

Such  an  instruction  as  our  "  German  "  *  can  be 
only  rarely  found  in  English  high  schools  (where,  of 
course,  it  would  be  called  "  English  "),  at  least  not 

*  Of  course,  the  authoress  means  instruction  in  language  and 
literature. 


94  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP   WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

BO  extended  and  with  such  clear  comprehension  of 
what  is  aimed  at.  The  fact  that  our  literature  is 
better  suited  for  the  purpose  than  the  English  may 
serve  as  an  excuse.  There  is  no  literature  in  the 
world  so  suitable  for  ethical  effect,  and  so  pure  and 
noble  that  its  masterpieces  may  without  hesitation 
be  placed  in  the  hands  of  children,  as  the  German. 
It  would  be  a  difficult  task  to  select  or  compile 
from  English  literature  (not  to  mention  the  French) 
a  canon  of  poetical  works  that  offered  suitable  mat- 
ter for  instruction.  English  literature  contains  little 
or  nothing  that  could  be  compared  in  variety,  pu- 
rity, and  depth  of  effect  upon  a  mind  and  heart  just 
growing  into  self-consciousness  with  Schiller's  and 
Uhland's  poems,  or  anything  that  could  in  the  least 
be  compared  in  adaptability  with  Hermann  und 
Dorothea,  Iphigenie,  Tasso,  Jungfrau  von  Orleans, 
Nathan  der  Weise,  etc. 

Despite  this  great  advantage,  the  matter  should 
be  sifted  properly.  True,  we  have  instruction  in 
religion  (though  in  many  schools  only  as  a  special 
study),  but  side  by  side  with  this  study  directly  ap- 
pealing to  the  heart  should  go  another  instruction, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  aim  at  the  same  truths  in 
a  roundabout  way  through  the  intellect.  This  is 
not  found  in  English  schools — neither  in  girls'  nor  in 
boys'  schools — but  the  want  is  actually  felt,  and  means 


INFLUENCE  OF  SOCIAL  LIFE.  95 

are  sought  to  supply  it.  A  pamphlet  by  E.  A.  Man- 
ning on  Moral  Teaching  in  Schools  points  to  that 
want  and  proposes  an  elementary  course  in  ethics  as 
a  remedy ;  if  that  remedy  were  applied,  we  should 
still  have  an  advantage  in  our  instruction  in  "  Ger- 
man "  (provided  it  be  well  given)  because  it  offers, 
unnoticed  and  as  a  matter  of  course,  linked  with  ex- 
alted and  noble  personages,  what  such  a  course  in 
ethics  could  only  offer  systematically  and,  as  it  were, 
intentionally.  Perhaps  by  drawing  more  upon  prose 
literature  than  is  necessary  with  us  a  literary  center 
may  be  found  around  which  ethical  instruction  could 
be  grouped. 

The  want  of  the  English  school  system  spoken 
of  is  met  with,  to  a  great  extent,  by  some  features 
of  domestic  and  social  life  in  England  which  are 
powerful  enough  to  counteract  the  disadvantages 
arising  from  too  great  leniency  during  infancy. 
First,  an  excellent  literature  for  children ;  second, 
systematic  practice  in  charity  from  earliest  childhood 
up.  To  this  may  be  added  an  innate  love  of  truth 
and  a  decisive  energy  of  will-power. 

I  will  touch  upon  these  points  but  briefly.  If 
our  classic  literature  is  incomparably  better  for  ethi- 
cal application  in  youth  than  the  English  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  English  literature  of  fiction  is  su- 
perior for  children  and  especially  for  young  ladies. 


96   HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

It  is  represented  by  Miss  Yonge,  Maria  Edgeworth, 
Louisa  Charlesworth,  Florence  Montgomery,  Miss 
Sewell,  and  many  others ;  our  Clara  Cron,  Clemen- 
tine Helm,  and  whatever  their  names  may  be,  are 
beaten  from  the  field  by  the  English.  We  have 
really  only  one  who  might  equal  the  English  author- 
esses, Ottilie  Wildermuth,  with  her,  at  times,  a  little 
too  sober  view  of  life.  Generally  speaking,  our  lit- 
erature is  suffering  from  the  fact  that  it  introduces 
young  girls  into  an  unreal  world ;  it  describes  to 
them  the  delights  of  the  ball-room,  of  socials,  teas 
and  calls,  etc.,  in  bright  but  borrowed  colors,  and 
does  everything  to  awaken  emotions  which  had  bet- 
ter lie  dormant  a  few  years  longer.  The  English 
authoresses  put  before  their  young  readers  psychical 
problems  suitable  for  their  age  and  induce  them  to 
think  about  them  ;  they  picture  the  world  as  it  really 
appears,  but  from  the  standpoint  of  a  person  who  is 
working  at  his  own  development  in  all  seriousness. 
These  books  (and  English  children  read  a  great  deal) 
partly  take  the  place  of  our  instruction  in  "  Ger- 
man ; "  they  induce  to  contemplation  of  self  and 
give  impetus  to  moral  will-power  through  the  chan- 
nel of  emotion. 

English  children  generally  have  more  chances 
for  practical  application  of  charity  than  ours.  They 
learn  human  misery  and  need  from  observation ; 


CHANCES  FOR  PRACTISING  CHARITY.         97 

they  arc  early  trained  to  place  their  strength  into 
the  service  of  charity.  Active  assistance  of  the 
poor  and  the  sick  belongs  to  the  duties  of  which 
every  English  woman  is  conscious,  and  to  the  fulfill- 
ment of  which  she  trains  her  daughters.  As  a  par- 
ticularly pleasing  feature  of  some  London  high 
schools  may  be  mentioned  that  in  them  "young 
ladies'  associations  "  have  been  f ormed,  the  avowed 
object  of  which  is  to  alleviate  human  misery ;  no- 
where is  misery  shown  so  bare  and  undisguised  as 
in  London. 

Thus  home  and  practical  life  adjusts  what  is 
wrong  in  school.  But  that  is  no  reason  why  the 
schools  themselves  should  not  do  what  is  necessary. 
The  great  interest  shown  among  the  leading  Eng- 
lish women  makes  it  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it 
will  be  done  ere  long. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND  AND  GERMANY. 

WHILE  I  arn  sure  that  the  English  schools  might 
borrow  from  Germany  in  regard  to  ethical  educa- 
tion, the  German  schools  might  be  induced  to  bor- 
row from  England  in  the  matter  of  intellectual  edu- 
cation That  the  German  girls'  schools  are  not  do- 
ing in  this  direction  what  may  justly  be  expected 
has  come  to  my  knowledge,  not  through  my  own  ex- 
perience, but  through  statements  made  officially  by 
men  who  have  had  much  experience  in  examining 
young  ladies.  The  consensus  of  their  opinion  is: 
Good  solid  knowledge  in  literature,  history,  and 
modern  languages  found  frequently  ;  but  the  efforts 
in  composition  less  than  mediocre,  and  the  capacity 
for  independent  logical  thinking  below  par.  He 
who  has  had  something  to  do  with  young  ladies  will 
know  how  difficult  it  is  to  make  them  think  ;  yet  we 
find  that  they  did  think  when  in  the  primary  and 
grammar  grades — yes,  think  well  and  much ;  but 
when  they  reach  the  upper  grades  a  certain  intellect- 


THE  ANCIENT  LANGUAGES.  99 

ual  lameness  becomes  noticeable.  That  may  be  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  the  intellect  (I  don't  mean  the 
memory)  is  not  sufficiently  exerted.  The  old 
branches  are  gone  over  again ;  they  do  not  call  for 
much  exertion,  hence  it  would  seem  advisable  to 
bring  them  into  contact  with  an  entirely  new  mat- 
ter of  thought  during  the  years  in  which  they  are 
apt  to  become  languid,  so  as  to  spur  them  to  ener- 
getic action.  "What  branch  should  that  be?  The 
English  liigh  schools  offer  the  ancient  languages 
and  higher  mathematics. 

The  ancient  languages  are  taught  in  English 
girls'  schools,  as  is  well  known,  not  on  account  of 
their  ethical  but  simply  on  account  of  their  intel- 
lectual importance.  It  is  not  expected  that  a 
pupil  who  stumbles  through  the  ancient  classics  in 
the  original  will  be  filled  with  antique  ideas  and 
emotions,  but  the  value  of  the  study  is  found,  or 
sought  at  least,  in  the  mental  gymnastics  it  offers. 
It  would  not  be  in  place  here  to  enter  into  the  dis- 
cussion that  is  now  going  on  in  Germany  and  in 
England  with  reference  to  the  formative  value  of 
the  ancient  languages.  I  refer  the  reader  to  a  book 
of  recent  origin — one  of  the  best  that  has  appeared 
on  that  subject,  namely,  Clemens  Nohl's  Paedago- 
gik,  respecting  his  arguments  for  the  "  middle 
school  without  Latin."  I  beg  leave  to  say  that  I 


100  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

agree  with  every  word  he  says.  Public  opinion, 
too,  is  more  and  more  emphatic  against  the  lofty 
airs  which  the  classical  high  school  (gymnasium) 
respecting  the  ancient  languages  assumes.  It  is 
no  longer  questioned  that  the  mental  gymnastics, 
thought  possible  only  through  them,  are  sought 
and  found  of  late  in  other  ways,  and  would  gen- 
erally be  so  acquired  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact 
that  the  Government's  favors  are  bestowed  upon 
the  graduates  of  classical  schools.  Certainly  the 
formative  value  of  the  study  of  the  classical  lan- 
guages is  great ;  but  modern  life  demands  too 
much  to  spend  the  best  years  in  training  our 
mental  faculties  with  means  which,  in  themselves, 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  actualities  of  life,  and, 
besides,  cause  an  overburdening  which  plays  havoc 
with  youth.  My  personal  view  of  this  is  that  a 
lessening  of  the  great  burdens  of  school,  which 
seems  so  urgently  necessary,  can  only  be  effected 
by  limiting  the  extent  of  language  instruction.  It 
seems  to  me  more  than  probable  that  the  time  is 
not  very  distant  in  which  instruction  in  ancient 
languages  will  be  greatly  limited  and  the  elements 
of  modern  languages  acquired  more  rapidly  than 
is  done  now  (probably  by  means  of  improved 
methods,  such  as  the  "  natural  method,"  and  by 
speaking  these  languages  with  teachers  who  have 


FORMATIVE  CULTURE  OP  LANGUAGE  STUDY.  101 

spent  some  time  in  foreign  countries),  in  order  to 
use  these  languages  for  the  purpose  of  learning 
the  life  of  other  nations,  their  aspirations,  views 
of  life,  and  results  of  thought.  Then  the  true 
value  of  linguistic  culture,  namely,  ability  to  view 
a  broader  current  of  thought  than  is  found  in  one's 
own  nation,  may  be  acquired ;  and  then,  too,  the 
study  of  foreign  tongues  will  aid  in  ethical  cult- 
ure, but  not  until  then.  A  method  which  will 
make  this  possible  with  children  is  only  appli- 
cable to  living  languages,  because  in  them  alone 
conversation  is  possible,  and  comprehension  of 
the  live  present  in  contradistinction  to  the  dead 
past. 

The  formative  culture  of  language  study,  of 
which  so  much  is  said,  will  certainly  be  facilitated 
if  many  grammatical  gymnastics  that  are  now 
practiced  before  the  language  is  known  are  lim- 
ited to  essentials.  Grammar  should  follow  and 
not  accompany  the  acquisition  of  any  language — 
at  least,  it  should  not  begin  until  material  enough 
is  gathered  from  which  to  derive  rules.  ("  Pupils 
should  learn  to  think  in  a  language  before  they  are 
called  upon  to  think  about  it." — Panitz.)  In  girls' 
schools,  where,  with  regard  to  the  choice  of  lan- 
guages, more  freedom  is  granted  than  in  boys' 
schools,  an  early  attention  to  this  question  is  re- 


102  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

quested.     Here  reading  and  the  live  spoken  word 
should  take  precedence  of  the  grammar. 

Hence  it  is  obvious  that  I  am  opposed  to  the 
ancient  languages  in  girls'  schools.  Their  intro- 
duction into  girls'  schools  in  England  is  owing  to 
the  influence  of  men  (the  examining  boards),  partly 
also  owing  to  time -honored  custom.  Not  only 
Lady  Jane  Grey  read  Plato ;  the  study  of  the 
ancients  has  never  been  neglected  by  the  female 
sex  in  England.  Though  it  may  not  have  been 
pursued  in  boarding  schools,  it  certainly  has  been 
privately.  And  then  very  obvious  causes  spoke  too 
plainly  to  admit  of  disregard — I  mean  that,  for  ad- 
mission into  the  colleges,  a  thorough  preparation 
in  the  ancient  classics  was  conditio  sine  qua  non* 
Such  reasons  might,  with  almost  equal  force,  be 

*  The  views  which  I  have  here  advanced  are  shared  by  many 
of  the  leaders  of  the  English  movement  for  the  improvement  of 
higher  learning  for  women.  They,  however,  acquiesced  under 
the  heavy  pressure  of  circumstances.  In  England  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  supremacy  of  the  ancient  languages  in  school  is  fully 
as  strong  as  it  is  in  Germany ;  and,  if  I  am  not  very  much  mis- 
taken, the  years,  if  not  the  days,  are  counted  after  which  those 
dead  languages  will  not  be  conditio  sine  qua  non  of  higher 
studies.  When  that  takes  place,  the  ancient  languages  in  Eng- 
lish high-schools  will  have  to  take  a  back  seat,  though  they  may 
not  .entirely  be  eliminated ;  and  that  will  also  be  the  case  in 
women's  colleges.  That  is  the  outspoken  desire  of  such  women 
as  Miss  Clough  and  Mrs.  Sidgwick,  I  know.  They  have  thus 
far  only  yielded  to  the,  alas !  strong  argument :  "  We  must  learn 
as  the  men  learn,  or  they  will  not  recognize  us." 


THE  ANCIENT  LANGUAGES.  103 

advanced  in  Germany  as  long  as  the  supremacy  of 
the  ancient  languages  continues.  Many  a  mother 
would  be  delighted  to  be  able  to  help  her  sons  in 
their  school  work,  and  a  little  knowledge  of  Latin 
seems  almost  indispensable,  considering  the  fact 
that  Latin  has  so  largely  saturated  scientific  works. 
Hence,  if  the  upper  grade  of  our  girls'  schools  (the 
so-called  "  selecta "  class)  would  oifer  Latin  besides 
other  studies,  no  one  would  be  apt  to  object.  It  is 
a  wonder  that  it  has  not  been  done  before,  instead 
of  the  much  less  useful  Italian  taught  in  that  class 
in  some  schools. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  classic  languages, 
I  am  well  aware,  is  obligatory  for  the  learned  pro- 
fessions ;  but  for  those  young  ladies  who  would 
enter  a  foreign  university  —  German  universities 
admit  no  women — to  prepare  themselves  for  the 
learned  professions,  no  opportunity  offers  itself  for 
acquiring  the  ancient  languages  save  private  in- 
struction. There,  it  seems  to  me,  a  remedy  must 
be  applied.  But  just  as  opposed  as  I  am  to  change 
our  girls'  schools  to  classical  schools,  just  as  heartily 
am  I  in  favor  of  establishing  at  least  a  certain 
number  of  classical  schools  for  girls,  so  as  to  give 
those  who  intend  to  enter  the  university  an  oppor- 
tunity to  fit  themselves  for  it.  It  would  be  fully 
early  enough  if  they  entered  such  a  classical  school 


104  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

when  fourteen  years  old.  They  would  then  be  old 
enough  to  judge  of  their  own  capabilities,  old 
enough  to  know  what  they  need  for  their  future 
calling.  Many  would  enter  such  a  school  even 
later,  with  mature  mental  powers,  and  would  ac- 
quire the  prescribed  languages  faster  and  with 
much  less  loss  of  time  than  is  done  in  the  pro- 
verbial classical  schools  of  to-day.  Thus,  as  special 
schools,  these  girls'  "gymnasiums"  or  "real-schu- 
len  "  would  seem  justified,  and  their  establishment 
should  be  assisted  by  women  all  the  more,  since, 
according  to  the  experiments  made  thus  far,  there 
is  no  other  way  open  than  self-help — at  least,  the 
state  is  not  likely  to  lend  a  helping  hand  in  the 
near  future. 

But  back  to  the  girls'  schools,  our  text. 

Although  I  should  not  recommend  the  intro- 
duction of  the  classical  languages  into  the  girls' 
schools  (except,  as  stated,  into  special  classical 
schools),  because  a  very  small  percentage  of  the 
number  of  students  would  be  benefited  by  them, 
I  should  with  much  emphasis  urge  the  introduction 
of  the  natural  sciences  and  higher  mathematics. 
Natural  sciences  are  taught  in  them  now,  it  is 
true;  but  I  should  like  to  see  them  taught  less 
like  play  and  more  in  a  manner  which  appeals  to 
original  thought.  They  would  then  be  inore  like 


MATHEMATICS.  105 

culture-studies.  I  have  spoken  of  the  role  they 
must  play  as  necessary  complements  to  the  ethical 
branches,  namely,  as  a  completion  to  the  very  de- 
sirable knowledge  of  life ;  I  should  now  add,  they 
are  of  enormous  value  as  formative  studies.  The 
student  learns  in  them  correct  observation  of  ac- 
tuality, learns  that  she  can  approach  truth  only 
"through  quiet  and  slow  progress,  leaning  upon 
well-understood  facts."  More  desirable  than  these 
studies  even  seems  to  me  mathematics;  I  do  not 
only  regard  it  higher  than  language  study  as  a 
formative  study — the  unrelenting  logic  with  which 
a  hasty  conclusion  is  prevented  is  an  irreplaceable 
means  of  education — but  it  offers  exactly  what  we 
need  to  meet  the  want  spoken  of  before — a  new, 
hence  interesting  and  elevating  subject.  I  own  will- 
ingly that  it  was  only  through  experience  that  I 
renounced  the  prejudice  I  possessed  against  mathe- 
matics, thinking  it  an  inadmissible  study  in  girls' 
schools.  Mathematics  is  taught  with  great  zeal  in 
English  high  schools,  and  the  young  ladies  seem  to 
express  a  preference  for  it  by  attempting  the  very 
difficult  mathematical  tripos  in  the  university  which 
presupposes  very  accurate  and  minute  knowledge. 
The  results  of  the  high  schools  in  mathematics,  as 
stated  by  Schoell  (Schmidt's  Encyclopaedia,  Yol.  iii, 
p.  1132)  are  thorough  and  good,  and  the  examina- 


106  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

tion  rolls  of  the  universities  prove  that  even  in 
higher  mathematics  very  satisfactory  results  are 
accomplished.  I  believe  it  would  be  promoting 
the  education  of  our  girls,  their  practice  in  think- 
ing and  judging,  if  mathematics  should  receive  a 
few  more  hours  per  week  than  are  now  given  to  it. 
These  hours  may  be  taken  from  other  branches  of 
less  weight.  If  the  languages  were  bled  a  little 
it  might,  perhaps,  lead  to  better  results,  provided, 
of  course,  the  ethical  branches  did  not  suffer  by 
favoring  the  intellectual  ones.  I  find  that  in  this  I 
am  in  accord  with  Clemens  Nohl,  who  asserts  that 
the  doctrine  that  girls  should  be  kept  away  from 
arithmetic  and  mathematics  "  is  one  of  the  numer- 
ous pedagogical  dogmas  which  were  invented  by 
theorizers  and  thoughtlessly  repeated  by  otherwise 
practical  men — a  dogma  which  one  rationally  con- 
ducted lesson  in  arithmetic  or  mathematics  in  any 
girls'  school  would  completely  upset."  He  desires 
these  branches,  in  order  to  counteract  the  "senti- 
mental, exuberant,  fanciful  twaddle"  found  there, 
tolerated  and  flourishing  under  the  guise  of  "  nour- 
ishment for  the'  heart." 

The  sum  total  of  my  opinion  concerning  the 
woman  question  and  female  education  in  England  is 
this :  There  are  three  causes  that  have  led  to  a 
happy  solution  of  the  woman  question :  (1)  The  un- 


EXCLUSIVE  INTELLECTUAL  CULTURE. 

disturbed,  resolute,  close  union  of  English  women 
without  parties  and  factions;  (2)  the  generous  as- 
sistance of  noble  men ;  (3)  the  fact  that  the  women 
not  only  demanded  equal  rights  with  men,  but  de- 
manded the  same  accomplishments  for  themselves. 
That  is  what  may  serve  us  in  Germany  as  an  exam- 
ple. That  the  English  women  had  at  their  dispo- 
sal great  funds,  I  consider  of  minor  importance; 
these  extensive  means  are  simply  in  proportion  to 
the  entire  English  institutions;  and  so  will  our 
means  be  in  proportion  to  our  institutions  and  na- 
tional wealth.  Our  men  have  a  highly  developed 
system  of  higher  education,  and  the  women  could 
have  the  same  if  they  wanted  it ;  that  is  to  say,  if 
the  same  interest  were  awakened  which  I  found 
in  England. 

And  as  to  their  advanced  girls'  schools,  the 
English  have  this  advantage — they  concede  to 
woman  a  wholesome  influence  in  their  manage- 
ment. The  special  emphasis  which  is  bestowed 
in  England  upon  exclusive  intellectual,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  ethical,  culture  does  not  meet  my  ap- 
proval. But  it  must  be  admitted  that  England 
shares  that  preference  with  all  other  foreign  na- 
tions. And  yet  I  would  not  introduce  the  ancient 
languages,  but  would  introduce  mathematics  as  an 
intellectual  branch  in  our  girls'  schools,  and  at  the 


108  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

same  time  recommend  the  establishment  of  special 
classical  schools  for  girls  to  accomodate  the  ever- 
growing number  of  young  women  who  wish  to 
prepare  themselves  for  university  studies. 

It  is  admitted,  as  a  matter  of  self-evidence,  that 
the  English  system  of  female  education  is  open  to 
criticism  and  offers  room  for  improvement ;  this  is 
willingly  admitted  by  English  women.  Perfection 
can  not  be  reached  in  a  single  bound.  But  it  is 
delightful  to  know  that  women  were  among  the 
first  who  denounced  the  well-known  mechanical 
drill  in  English  schools.  Boys'  high  schools,  both 
public  and  private,  are  suffering  under  this  senseless 
procedure,  and  the  public  lower  schools  seem  to  be 
doomed  under  the  influence  of  machine  regulations. 
It  is  confidently  expected  that  the  women  will  con- 
tinue in  the  work  of  reform,  and  that  they  will  in 
time  to  come  do  away  with  all  the  remnants  of  the 
old  system.  The  absolute  liberty  of  development 
enjoyed  by  the  English  system  of  higher  female 
education  makes  easy  a  correction  of  errors  and 
antiquated  institutions  when  a  resolute  will  employs 
its  energy  to  that  end.  And  the  energetic  initia- 
tive and  great  mental  mobility  shown  by  English 
women  in  starting  the  enormous  school  reforms  will 
secure  for  their  work  a  prospering  future,  despite 
all  mistakes  that  may  have  l>een  made  in  the  begin- 


ENERGETIC  INITIATIVE.  109 

ning.  For  Germans  the  opinion  of  our  celebrated 
countryman,  Prof.  Max  Miiller,  of  Oxford,  may  be 
of  weight.  To  his  initiative  may  be  traced  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  high  school  in  Oxford.  He  pays 
a  high  tribute  to  the  work  done  in  it  by  women. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

IN  OTHEK  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE. 

WHENEVER  the  possibility  of  admitting  women 
to  the  German  universities  is  discussed  and  the  ex- 
ample of  England  is  pointed  out,  it  is  replied  that 
the  circumstances  are  different  and  that  a  parallel 
can  not  be  drawn.  This  answer  seems  very  plaus- 
ible, yet  it  is  directed  at  a  supposition  which  no  one 
has  made.  No  one  is  so  foolish  as  to  propose  that 
the  English  institutions  be  transferred  to  Germany 
and  servilely  copied  there.  That  I  personally 
am  not  of  that  opinion  is,  I  believe,  clearly  stated 
in  the  preceding  pages,  excepting  a  few  things 
which  are  worthy  of  imitation.  But  what  should 
be  transplanted  is  the  principle  that  to  women 
should  be  opened  the  same  studies,  to  them  should 
be  offered  the  same  relief  and  the  same  encourage- 
ment that  men  enjoy.  If  this  principle  is  once 
accepted,  things  will  develop  in  Germany  in  a 
German  manner,  as  they  developed  in  England  in 
an  English  manner. 


IN  FRANCE.  HI 

Most  European  countries  (not  to  speak  of 
America)  have  either  carried  out  this  principle — at 
least  with  regard  to  university  studies — or  are  be- 
ginning to  do  so.  Let  us  see  what  is  being  done 
in  other  countries. 

France. — This  country  began  early  to  provide 
for  the  women  in  a  most  generous  way.  From 
18G6  till  1882  one  hundred  and  nine  academic  de- 
grees have  been  conferred  upon  women.  Neither 
did  the  medical  faculty  raise  any  difficulties.  The 
prejudice  that  the  female  intellect  was  not  able  to 
cope  with  the  study  of  medicine  was  quickly  over- 
come. "With  great  candor,  Ernest  Legouve,  for- 
merly an  opponent  of  the  cause,  admits  that  he  has 
been  in  error  if  he  thought  women  incapable  of 
pursuing  scientific  studies.  In  France  there  were 
no  preparatory  schools  for  the  university.  Only 
after  the  downfall  of  the  second  empire,  after  the 
humiliating  experiences  in  1870-'71,  steps  were 
taken  favorable  to  women  ;  the  Government  became 
convinced  of  the  fact  that  an  elevation  of  the  whole 
people  is  only  possible  by  means  of  an  elevation  of 
its  women.  The  motion  of  Camille  See  to  found 
and  maintain  lyceums  for  women  was  adopted 
without  delay.  "  Our  law  is  a  moral  as  well  as 
a  social  and  political  law,"  thus  he  pleaded  for  it, 
in  1880,  before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies;  "it 


112  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

concerns  the  future  and  security  of  France,  for 
upon  the  women  depends  the  greatness  or  decay 
of  the  nations." 

Public  opinion  in  France  was  favorable  to  See's 
law.  The  city  of  Rouen  was  the  first  that  opened 
a  lyceum  for  girls.  It  cost  a  million  francs  to 
build.  One  half  of  the  expense  was  defrayed  by 
the  state,  the  other  half  by  the  community  On 
the  day  on  which  the  school  was  opened  two  hun- 
dred and  two  pupils  were  enrolled.  In  1882  the 
state  voted  for  an  additional  ten  million  francs  for 
the  establishment  of  such  schools,  and  their  num- 
ber has  since  greatly  increased.* 

England. — The  foregoing  pages  report  fully 
what  has  been  done  in  England.  Ever  since  1867 
one  privilege  after  another  has  been  yielded,  one 
college  after  another  has  been  opened,  and  the 
number  of  women  pursuing  university  studies  has 
increased  from  five  to  as  many  hundreds. 

*  At  present,  January,  1890,  France  has  fifty-one  girls' 
lyceuras  (that  is,  high  schools,  to  use  an  American  term).  Our 
sources  of  information  differ  as  to  the  date  and  plan  of  the  first 
girls'  lyceum  opened  in  France ;  some  say  the  city  of  Mont- 
pellier  was  the  first,  others  Rouen — the  fact  is  immaterial, 
though.  The  last  one  opened  is  in  Paris;  it  has  cost  two  mill- 
ion francs,  has  six  male  and  sixteen  female  teachers ;  the  pupils 
are  between  seven  and  seventeen  years  of  age.  Besides  the 
high-school  branches,  sewing  and  domestic  economy  are  taught. 
The  pupils  who  go  through  a  post-graduate  course  of  one  year 
receive  a  teacher's  license. — TRANSLATOR. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES.  113 

Switzerland.  —  As  is  well  known,  Switzerland 
opened  its  universities  to  women  very  early.  Zu- 
rich was  the  first,  in  1868 ;  then  followed  Geneva, 
Bern,  and  Neufchatel.  The  women  here,  like  the 
women  in  England  and  France,  have  to  do  the  same 
duties,  but  they  enjoy  also  the  same  rights  and 
privileges  that  the  men  have  in  regard  to  higher 
education. 

Sweden.  —  Then  followed  Sweden,  throwing 
open  the  doors  of  its  universities  to  women.  In 
1870  they  were  admitted,  and  since  1873  they  can 
acquire  the  same  degrees  in  the  arts  and  in  medi- 
cine as  are  conferred  upon  men.  The  exemplary 
conduct  of  the  young  men  toward  the  women  in 
the  universities  of  Sweden  is  justly  commented 
upon. 

Denmark  followed  in  1875.  It  opened  its  only 
university,  that  in  Copenhagen.  "Women  there 
may  acquire  all  the  degrees  open  to  men  save  that 
of  D.  D.,  for  the  theological  faculty  is  closed  to 
them. 

Italy. — In  Italy  the  better  -  educated  class  has 
been  favorable  to  the  question  of  higher  education 
of  women.  The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
Bonghi,  opened  the  university  to  women  shortly 
before  he  was  obliged  to  resign  (1876). 

ia. — In  1867  the  women  petitioned  the  Gov- 


114  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

ernment  for  admission  to  the  universities,  but  Min- 
ister Tolstoi  refused  to  grant  it.  Then  the  profess- 
ors of  the  University  of  St.  Petersburg  made  use  of 
their  right  to  give  public  lectures  in  such  a  way 
that  they  arranged  complete  courses,  so  that  women 
were  enabled  to  pursue  university  studies  and  pre- 
pare for  examinations  for  ten  years  before  they 
were  officially  admitted  to  the  university.  The 
same  minister  who  had  in  1867  refused  to  grant 
admission,  at  last,  in  1878,  agreed  to  having 
courses  arranged  for  women  in  the  University  of 
St.  Petersburg.  They  were  attended  quite  numer- 
ously. The  universities  in  Moscow,  Kiev,  Kasan, 
and  others  followed.  Finland,  as  is  well  known, 
is  ahead  of  other  nations  in  this,  as  in  many  other 
educational  movements. 

Holland. — In  1880  the  first  female  student  was 
enrolled  in  the  University  of  Amsterdam.  In  one 
respect  Holland  is  ahead  of  all  other  countries,  in- 
asmuch as  women  there  have  never  been  debarred 
from  admission  to  the  university.  The  new  law, 
passed  in  1876,  needed  not  have  given  women  the 
right  which,  in  fact,  had  never  been  denied  them. 
They  now  certainly  have  the  same  right  to  ma- 
triculation and  degrees  that  is  offered  to  men,  pro- 
vided they  pass  the  required  examinations.  The 
first  enrollment  of  a  woman  in  Amsterdam  took 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES.  115 

place  in  1880,  but  women  had  been  studying  in 
Groningen  before  that  date.  Now  women  are 
studying  in  all  the  four  Dutch  universities — Ley 
den,  Utrecht,  Groningen,  and  Amsterdam — though, 
as  yet,  their  number  is  small. 

Belgium.  —  In  this  country  the  first  woman 
was  admitted  to  a  university  course  in  1880  (in 
Brussels).  Since  1883  the  admission  of  women 
has  become  general,  and  they  are  studying 
with  good  success  in  Brussels,  Liittich,  and 
Ghent. 

Norway. — Here  the  first  woman,  Miss  Cecile 
Thoresen,  asked  to  be  admitted  to  the  University 
of  Christiania  in  1880.  According  to  the  status 
and  the  charter  of  the  institution  she  had  to  be 
refused  admittance  ;  but  no  sooner  had  this  become 
known  to  the  world  than  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment proposed  a  bill  to  admit  women  to  the 
examen  artium  and  the  examen  philosophicum. 
The  parliamentary  Committee  on  Education  re- 
ported the  bill  unanimously  to  the  house,  and  in 
the  two  houses  the  bill  was  passed  with  a  single 
dissenting  vote.  It  became  a  law  on  July  15, 
1882.  When  Miss  Thoresen  was  enrolled,  the 
students,  who  had  always  been  favorable  to  the 
movement,  sent  her  an  address  of  congratulation 
and  welcome. 


116  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

About  the  state  of  affairs  in  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal I  received,  from  trustworthy  sources,  the  fol- 
lowing information :  There  is  no  law  in  either  of 
these  countries  which  refuses  women  admission  to 
the  universities  or  any  other  public  seats  of  learn- 
ing, either  as  teachers  or  as  pupils.  The  statutes 
and  charters  say  nothing  on  that  point.  Hence, 
when  women  ask  to  be  admitted  no  one  refuses. 
However,  the  general  idea  is — and  a  justified  one 
it  appears — that  the  southern  women  have  not  the 
desire  nor  the  intellectual  and  physical  powers  for 
scientific  activity.  Still,  exceptions  are  appreciated 
without  hesitation,  and  they  are  treated  with  true 
liberality  and  perfect  courtesy.  The  names  of  such 
ladies  are  often  quoted  with  admiration,  but  their 
example  finds  little  imitation.  The  actual  partici- 
pation in  academic  studies  is  very  small.  A  few 
women  study  at  Madrid,  Yalladolid,  and  Barcelona, 
chiefly  medicine.  The  Portuguese  university  at 
Coi'mbra  has  never  been  asked  to  admit  women,  but 
in  the  medical  school  at  Oporto  three  young  ladies 
are  enrolled.  They  have  been  studying  with  suc- 
cess for  some  years,  and  have  regularly  attended  the 
"anatomy"  classes  (dissecting-rooms  and  clinics). 
Though  university  study  is  still  considered  an  ex- 
ception for  women,  the  examinations  arranged  for 
elementary  and  high  schools,  to  which,  without  ex- 


IN  GERMAN  AUSTRIA.  117 

ception,  every  boy  and  girl  is  admitted  regardless 
of  where  and  in  what  manner  he  or  she  acquired 
the  knowledge  asked  for,  are  readily  participated 
in  by  both  sexes.  These  examinations  have  been 
held  during  the  last  six  years.  Hundreds  of  young 
ladies  submit  to  them.  The  question  of  establish- 
ing special  girls'  lyceums  is  being  agitated ;  a  vio- 
lent controversy  has  been  going  on  concerning  this, 
and  the  desire  of  many  Portuguese  is  "that  their 
ladies  may  remain  in  future  as  charmingly  ami- 
able and  foolish  children  as  they  have  been  since 
Adam's  time." 

Of  great  nations  in  Europe  there  remain  Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary,  and  Turkey. 

German  Austria  has  at  least  made  a  beginning. 
A  decree  of  the  Minister  of  Education  (in  1878) 
admits  women  to  certain  regular  lecture  courses  of 
the  university.  Each  case,  however,  is  to  be  exam- 
ined separately,  and  the  decision  as  to  whether  an 
admission  is  to  be  granted  is  left  to  the  college  of 
professors,  and  particularly  to  that  of  the  professor 
whose  lectures  are  applied  for.  Enrollment,  hence 
participation  in  working  for  a  degree,  is  prohibited. 
It  is  obvious  that  this  decree  may  mean  much  or 
little ;  it  all  depends  upon  the  professors,  whether 
they  are  favorable  to  the  admission  of  women  or 
not.  In  Vienna  the  professors  have  shown  great 


118   HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

willingness.  The  women  studying  there  praise  the 
consideration  shown  them  by  the  professors  and 
the  excellent  reserved  conduct  of  the  students. 
Here,  then,  is  a  Case  where  the  women  have  to  ful- 
fill all  the  duties  imposed  upon  the  men  but  do  not 
enjoy  their  prerogatives.  That  they,  for  instance, 
have  passed  their  examination  for  graduation  is  not 
given  in  documentary  evidence  ;  only  privately  the 
professors  give  a  testimonial  to  that  effect.  Neither 
is  their  college  register  kept,  and  a  private  state- 
ment of  their  regular  attendance  is  all  they  have 
hitherto  been  able  to  obtain.  Nevertheless,  their 
admission,  limited  as  it  is,  is  considered  of  value, 
since  their  attendance  in  Vienna  is  taken  as  "pri- 
ma  facie  evidence  "  in  other  universities,  such  as 
Zurich.  It  is  devoutly  to  be  hoped  that  the  Aus- 
trian Government  will  change  this  state  of  affairs 
and  legalize  it. 

In  Hungary  three  women  have  made  an  attempt 
to  obtain  admission  to  the  universities  of  Buda-Pesth 
and  Klausenburg.  The  university  authorities  were 
inclined  to  admit  them,  representing  the  principle : 
"  Whoever  proves  that  he  possesses  the  required 
preparation  is  admitted  to  matriculation  and  the 
examinations  of  the  university ;  sex  is  not  consid- 
ered." But  the  Minister  of  Culture,  Trefort,  re- 
fused his  assent.  Since  tliis  official  died  during  the 


IN  HUNGARY.  119 

year  1889,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  Hungary 
will  not  long  lag  behind  in  the  great  onward  march 
of  civilization,  and  then  the  German  women  will  be 
the  only  ones  in  Europe — we  need  not  take  the 
women  on  the  Balkan  peninsula  into  consideration 
—who  are  excluded  from  university  study. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

WHY   WOMEN   SHOULD   BE   ADMITTED    TO    UNIVERSITIES. 

ATTEMPTS  have  also  been  made  by  women  in 
Germany  during  the  last  two  decades  to  obtain  ad- 
mission to  the  universities,  though  they  were  but 
rare  cases.  A  few  professors  have  looked  upon 
such  endeavors  with  favor,  but  they  did  not  care  to 
make  themselves  the  leaders  of  the  cause.  Here 
and  there  admission-  has  been  granted  to  a  .few 
courses  of  lectures — especially  to  foreign  ladies — 
but  of  late  this  has  been  surrounded  by  many  limi- 
tations. The  women  are  excluded  on  principle 
from  passing  the  examination  for  graduation ;  not 
even  a  private  examination  is  allowed  them.  The 
German  women  have  to  go  to  foreign  countries  if 
they  will  not  forego  a  higher  education. 

It  can  not  be  asserted,  and  it  certainly  is  not, 
that  the  two  great  nations  of  the  German  tongue 
have  taken  a  very  advanced  position  in  this  ques- 
tion, but  German  Austria  stands  ahead  of  Germany, 
to  be  sure. 


DISCONTENT  OF  THE  MODERN  GIRL.       121 

To  answer  the  question,  why  women  insist  at 
present  upon  admission  to  the  university,  is  to  give 
all  the  reasons  for  the  great  woman  movement. 
In  our  time  material  and  intellectual  wants  urge 
woman  as  never  before.  Material  wants  —  the 
liberation  of  hand  labor  by  machine  labor,  and  the 
increasing  tendency  of  men  to  remain  unmarried, 
leaves  a  great  number  of  women  without  visible 
means  of  support.  The  same  circumstances  create 
an  intellectual  want  in  circles  where  pecuniary  aid 
is  not  needed,  and  this  want  is  equally  hard  to  bear. 
No  one  has  described  this  more  vividly  than  Miss 
E.  Davies. 

"Many  fathers  are  no  doubt  aware  that  their 
daughters  have  very  little  to  do.  But  that  seems  to 
thehn  a"riy thing  but  a  hardship.  They  wish  they 
had  a  little  less  to  do  themselves,  and  can  imagine 
all  sorts  of  interesting  pursuits  to  which  they  would 
betake  themselves  if  they  only  had  a  little  more 
leisure.  Ladies,  it  may  be  said,  have  their  choice, 
and  they  must  evidently  prefer  idleness,  or  they 
would  find  something  to  do.  If  this  means  that 
half-educated  young  women  do  not  choose  steady 
work  when  they  have  no  inducement  whatever  to 
overcome  natural  indolence,  it  is  no  doubt  true. 
Women  are  no  stronger  minded  than  men,  and 'a 
commonplace  young  woman  can  no  more  work 


122  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  -EUROPE. 

steadily  without  motive  or  discipline  than  a  com- 
monplace young  man.  .  .  .  People  who  have  not 
been  brought  into  intimate  converse  with  young 
women  have  little  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  they 
suffer  from  perplexities  of  conscience.  '  The  dis- 
content of  the  modern  girl '  is  not  mere  idle  self- 
torture.  Busy  men  and  women — and  people  with 
disciplined  minds — can  only,  by  a  certain  strain  of 
the  imagination,  conceive  the  situation.  If  they  at 
all  entered  into  it,  they  could  not  have  the  heart  to 
talk  as  they  do.  For  the  case  of  the  modern  girl  is 
peculiarly  hard  in  this,  that  she  has  fallen  upon  an 
age  in  which  idleness  is  accounted  disgraceful.  The 
social  atmosphere  rings  with  exhortations  to  act,  act 
in  the  living  present.  Everywhere  we  hear  that 
true  happiness  is  to  be  found  in  work — that  there 
can  be  no  leisure  without  toil — that  people  who  do 
nothing  are  unfruitful  fig  trees  which  cumber  the 
ground.  And  in  this  atmosphere  the  modern  girl 
lives  and  breathes.  She  is  not  a  stone,  and  she  does 
not  live  underground.  She  hears  people  talk,  she 
listens  to  sermons,  she  reads  books.  And  in  her 
reading  she  comes  across  such  passages  as  the  fol- 
lowing :  '  It  is  real  pleasure  to  me  to  find  that  you 
are  taking  steadily  to  a  profession,  without  which  I 
scarcely  see  how  a  man  can  live  honestly.  That  is, 
I  use  the  term  profession  in  rather  a  large  sense, 


DISCONTENT  0V  THE  MODERN  GIRL.       123 

not  as  simply  denoting  certain  callings  which  a  man 
follows  for  his  maintenance,  but  rather  a  definite 
field  of  duty,  which  the  nobleman  has  as  much  as 
the  tailor,  but  which  he  has  not  who,  having  an  in- 
come large  enough  to  keep  him  from  starving, 
hangs  about  upon  life,  merely  following  his  own 
caprices  and  fancies ;  quod  factu  pessimuin  est?  * 

"  Or,  again,  such  a  passage  as  this :  '  Que  de 
femmes,  si  vous  exceptez  les  meres  qui  se  donnent 
a  leur  famille,  que  de  femmes,  h61as,  dont  la  vie  se 
passe  entiere  dans  de  futiles  occupations,  ou  dans 
des  conversations  plus  futiles  encore!  Et  Ton 
s'etonne  que,  rong6es  d'ennui,  elles  rercherchent 
avec  fr£nesie  toutes  les  distractions  imaginables! 
Elles  accusent  la  monotonie  de  leur  existence  d'etre 
la  cause  de  ce  vague  malaise ;  la  vraie  cause  est 
ailleurs,  elle  est  dans  la  f  adeur  intolerable,  non  d'une 
vie  d^pourvue  d'e've'nements  et  d'aventures,  mais 
d'une  vie  dont  ou  n'entrevoit  pas  la  raison  ni  le  but. 
On  se  sent  vivre  sans  qu'on  y  soit  pour  quelque 
chose,  et  cette  vie  inconsciente,  absurde,  inspire  un 
me'contentment  trop  f ondeV  f 

"  Such  things  the  modern  girl  reads,  and  every 
word  is  confirmed  by  her  own  experience.  .  .  .  She 

*  Letter  to  Dr.  Greenhill,  an  old  pupil,  in  Life  of  Dr.  Ar- 
nold, p.  392. 

f  Sermons  par  T.  Colani,  Deuxieme  Recueil,  p.  293. 


124  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

seeks  for  counsel,  and  she  finds  it.  She  is  bidden  to 
'  look  around  her ' — to  do  the  duty  that  lies  nearest. 
.  .  .  She  looks  around  her,  and  sees  no  particular  call 
to  active  exertion.  The  duties  that  He  in  the  way  are 
swallowed  up  by  an  energetic  mother  or  elder  sister. 
.  .  .  She  feels  no  sort  of  impulse  to  take  up  any 
particular  pursuit  or  to  follow  out  a  course  of 
study ;  and  so  long  as  she  is  quiet  and  amiable,  and 
does  not  get  out  of  health,  nobody  wants  her  to  do 
anything.  Her  relations  and  friends — her  world — 
are  quite,  satisfied  that  she  should  '  hang  about  life, 
merely  following  her  own '  (or  their  own)  '  ca- 
prices and  fancies.'  The  advice  given,  so  easy  to 
offer,  so  hard  to  follow,  presupposes  exactly  what 
is  wanting — a  formed  and  disciplined  character,  able 
to  stand  alone  and  to  follow  steadily  a  predeter- 
mined course  without  fear  of  punishment  or  hope 
of  reward.  Ought  we  to  wonder  that,  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases,  girls  allow  themselves  to  go  drift- 
ing down  the  stream,  despising  themselves,  but  list- 
lessly yielding  to  what  seems  to  be  their  fate  ? 

"  An  appeal  to  natural  guides  is  most  often 
either  summarily  dismissed  or  received  with  re- 
proachful astonishment.  It  is  considered  a  just 
cause  of  surprise  and  disappointment  that  well 
brought  up  girls,  surrounded  with  all  the  comforts 
of  home,  should  have  a  wish  or  a  thought  extend- 


PARENTS  FAIL  TO  UNDERSTAND.  125 

ing  beyond  its  precincts.  And  perhaps  it  is  only 
natural  that  parents  should  be  slow  to  encourage 
their  daughters  in  aspirations  after  any  duties  and 
interests  besides  those  of  ministering  to  their  com- 
fort and  pleasure.  In  taking  for  granted  that  this 
is  the  only  object,  other  than  that  of  marriage,  for 
which  women  were  created,  they  are  but  adopting 
the  received  sentiment  of  society.  No  doubt,  too, 
they  believe  that  in  keeping  their  daughters  to 
themselves  till  they  marry  they  are  doing  the  best 
thing  for  them  as  well  as  pleasing  themselves.  If 
the  daughters  take  a  different  view,  parents  think  it 
is  because  they  are  young  and  inexperienced,  and 
incompetent  to  judge.  The  fact  is,  it  is  the  parents 
who  are  inexperienced.  Their  youth  was  different 
in  a  hundred  ways  from  the  youth  of  this  genera- 
tion ;  and  the  experience  of  thirty  years  ago  is  far 
from  being  infallible  in  dealing  with  the  difficulties 
and  perplexities  of  the  present.  No  doubt,  young 
people  are  ignorant  and  want  guidance.  But  they 
should  be  helped  and  advised,  not  silenced.  Parents 
take  upon  themselves  a  heavy  responsibility  when 
they  hastily  crush  the  longing  after  a  larger  and 
more  purposeful  life."  * 

And  that  is  done  daily,  not  only  in  England,  but 

*  The  Higher  Education  of  Women,  by  E.  Davies,  p.  47. 


126  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

also  in  Germany.  Who  has  the  courage  to  say  that 
the  sympathetic  description  of  Miss  Davies  does  not 
fit  our  circumstances?  Who  is  bold  enough  to 
assert  that  every  young  lady  in  our  wealthy  families 
can  find  sufficient  occupation  for  her  internal  and 
external  life  if  she  but  look  for  it?  A  number 
of  them  probably.  There  are  families  in  which  the 
daughters  are  sufficiently  and  satisfactorily  occupied 
with  domestic  duties ;  there  are  other  girls  who 
without  being  really  occupied  are  contented  in 
beautifying  the  lives  of  their  parents  and  friends  of 
the  family  as  welcome  home-spirits  until  they  mar- 
ry; or,  if  they  do  not  marry,  they  lead  a  happy, 
peaceful  existence,  full  of  blessing  for  others,  as  the 
ever  welcome  "  aunties."  But  blissful  such  an  ex- 
istence is  only  when  it  is  chosen  voluntarily.  If  the 
girl  who  is  to  beautify  life  fights  a  battle  royal 
with  the  desire  to  be  of  use,  to  create  an  existence 
of  her  own,  it  would  seem  a  downright  sin  com- 
mitted upon  undying  reason  to  deny  it  to  her,  pro- 
vided no  real  duty  intercedes.  Now,  what  kind  of 
an  existence  is  she  to  create  for  herself  ?  That 
which  she  chooses.  It  stands  to  reason  that  riot  all 
these  young  girls  can  devote  themselves  to  uni- 
versity studies ;  the  word  of  charm  against  modern 
pessimism  is  not  university  culture,  but  work — use- 
ful, practical  work  generally.  That  the  need  of 


THE  TEACHER'S  PROFESSION.  127 

that  is  growing  more  and  more  is  shown  by  the 
great  number  of  female  candidates  crowding  the 
examinations  for  teachers'  certificates.  And  they 
are  not  all  driven  to  it  by  material  want,  but  a  con- 
siderable  number  of  them  simply  look  for  a  firm 
discipline,  a  definite  aim  to  work  up  to.  Even  the 
desolate  memory  work  that  is  required  of  them  by 
a  series  of  examinations  seems  to  be  preferable  to 
the  utter  emptiness  of  their  existence,  preferable 
also  to  amateur  work,  this  intellectual  nibbling  and 
aimless  listening  to  fashionable  lectures.  Complaint 
is  raised  about  the  crowds  of  female  applicants  at 
teachers'  examinations,  and  they  are  interpreted  as 
evil  signs  of  the  time.  There  can  ~be  no  better  sign. 
That  a  thing  happens  which  in  former  times  would 
have  been  thought  outrageous,  namely,  that  the 
daughters  of  our  first  families  long  for  work,  and  de- 
mand rational,  intelligent  assistance  in,  and  control 
of  their  studies,  that  they  elevate  the  profession 
upon  which  they  used  to  look  down,  may  be,  and 
should  be,  considered  a  gain  which  can  not  be 
gauged  too  high. 

But  the  teacher's  profession  is  not  everybody's 
calling.  Let  them  choose  another.  It  is  equally 
gratifying  to  notice  that  nursing  the  sick  is  begin- 
ning to  be  taken  up  as  a  profession  and  that  it  is 
deemed  important  enough  to  be  learned  profession- 


128  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

ally.  Likewise  it  is  a  sign  of  better  times  that  the 
kindergartens  begin  to  attract  the  girls  of  better 
situated  classes.  The  dominion  of  art  industry  also 
— yes,  and  trades — are  opening  to  women.  All  that, 
however,  is  insufficient.  If  work  is  to  have  a  re- 
deeming influence,  it  must  be  chosen  in  conform- 
ity with  one's  taste.  One  must  have  the  right  to 
choose  according  to  one's  own  powers  and  talents. 
Nobody  chooses  otherwise.  Hence  no  field  of 
labor  should  be  denied,  not  even  the  highest  intel- 
lectual labor.  Those  who  intellectually  hunger 
should  be  offered  the  best  intellectual  food  available 
in  Germany.  No  one  should  in  Germany  be  denied 
opportunities  to  fill  that  inner  desolate  void,  no  one 
obliged  to  stifle  what  is  considered  the  highest  sign 
of  superiority — a  longing  for  serious  mental  and 
professional  wTork.  Yet  this  murder  of  the  mind  is 
committed  daily  in  our  country. 

Should  any  one  be  impenetrable  to  such  argu- 
ments for  offering  professional  training  and  the 
professions  themselves  to  women  he  may  be  open 
to  practical  ones.  They  are  the  ever  increasing 
need  of  women  and  the  necessity  for  employing 
them  in  certain  professions.  It  is  still  customary  to 
deny  the  need  among  German  women.  'A  few 
figures  will  prove  it.  According  to  the  census  of 
December  1,  1885,  Germany  had  15,181,823  adult 


RATIO  OP  UNMARRIED  WOMEN. 


129 


MARRIED 

52.3* 


WOMEN 

AVE  BEEN 
13.7* 


34* 


women,  that  is,  women  of  marriageable  age,  sixteen 
years  and  over.  Of  these,  7,944,445,  or  52'3  per  cent, 
were  married ;  5,155,241,  or  34  per  cent,  were  un- 
married ;  2,082,137,  or  13'7  per  cent,  had  been  mar- 
ried. Hence,  taking  the  last  two  numbers  together, 
there  were  7,237,378  women,  or  47*7  per  cent,  with- 
out "  natural  support- 
er," leaving  out  of  con- 
sideration the  fact  that 
many  of  those  who  had 
this  supporter  were  still 
without  support. 

The  number  of  un- 
married women  and 
widows  who  are  not 
working  for  their  sup- 
port, or  only  indiffer- 
ently, who  either  by  family  connection  or  in  pos- 
session of  a  fortune  of  their  own  are  in  circum- 
stances that  shield  them  (if  not  from  intellectual) 
from  material  want,  that  number  I  estimate  at  about 
two  millions.  Hence,  leaving  out  of  sight  the 
number  of  women  who  work  for  the  support  of 
their  families  and  thus  aid  the  "  natural  supporter," 
there  must  be  five  million  women,  unmarried  or 
widows,  who  temporarily  or  permanently  earn  their 
own  living,  and,  in  many  cases,  those  dependent 


130  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

upon  them.  Now,  as  far  as  the  lower  strata  of  so- 
ciety are  concerned,  a  part  of  them  find  occupation 
quite  easily,  partly  in  positions  as  servants  occupied 
with  purely  female  work,  partly  competing  with 
men,  with  whom  they  stand  in  perfect  equality,  if 
not  in  wages,  at  least  in  regard  to  intellectual  cult- 
ure. Many  of  these  have  to  toil  inexpressibly,  but 
they  have  at  least  the  satisfaction  that  the  men  have 
no  better  lot  than  theirs.  In  these  walks  of  life 
there  are  no  arbitrarily  made  differences  between 
man  and  woman.  The  woman  question  in  the  lower 
classes  is  therefore  only  an  integral  part  of  the  great 
social  problem.  But  in  the  middle  and  higher 
classes  we  meet  an  arbitrary  disparity,  hence,  one 
that  may  easily  be  removed ;  and  in  these  classes  we 
meet  most  unmarried  women.  Here  man  has  privi- 
leges ;  he  has  not  only  advantages  given  him  by  na- 
ture, but  also  advantages  bestowed  upon  him  by 
society,  that  is,  by  his  own  sex ;  and  thus  the  weight 
of  the  misery,  which  may  be  supposed  if  we  look  at 
the  foregoing  figures,  is  doubled.  He  has  all  the  op- 
portunities for  education,  and  all  imaginable  facili- 
ties. To  woman  is  denied  the  state's  sanction,  even 
to  an  education  acquired  independently  of  state  aid, 
except  the  professional  education  of  a  teacher.  To 
him  are  open  all  the  many  places  in  the  civil  service, 
where  a  life-long  maintenance  is  awaiting  him ;  to 


THE  CRY  OF  DESPERATION.  131 

women  places  are  open  to  such  limited  extent  that 
they  almost  disappear  from  sight. 

And  yet  a  cry  of  desperation  is  raised  among  the 
better  educated  classes,  that  is,  among  the  ones  who 
have  fewest  prospects,  when  their  women  make  an 
attempt  at  participating  in  the  privileges  of  man  in 
order  to  acquire  the  knowledge  made  necessary  for 
competition  by  the  existing  circumstances,  and  they 
are  ever  and  again  reminded  of  their  "  natural  call- 
ing." Yerily,  he  is  not  to  be  envied  for  his  heart  or 
his  judgment  who  in  the  face  of  the  foregoing  fig- 
ures still  has  the  courage  to  point  out  to  those  who 
cry  for  bread  or  a  satisfactory  sphere  of  activity  a 
calling  which  they  are  unable  to  follow.  In  the  face 
of  the  foregoing  figures  such  phrases  as  "natural 
calling  "  and  the  "  position  of  woman  as  assistant  of 
man"  are  cruelty.  The  statistical  data,  or  ratios, 
mentioned  are  not  essentially  different  from  those  in 
other  countries ;  but  everywhere  a  beginning  is  made 
in  removing  the  separating  barriers.  The  fate  of  wo- 
men is  made  easier  by  opening  all  the  professions, 
and  thus  offering  at  least  a  limited  number  of  them  a 
satisfactory  maintenance.  The  greater  physical  and 
mental  power  of  resistance  man  has,  and  his  higher 
capacity  for  competition  resulting  therefrom  will 
still  leave  the  great  majority  of  women  in  misery. 
I  am  at  present  concerned  about  the  learned  profes- 


132  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

sions.  It  is  obvious,  then,  that  by  opening  them  to 
only  a  limited  number  of  women,  a  certain  class  only 
would  be  benefited.  How  the  other  classes  might 
be  benefited  can  be  seen  in  France,  England,  Bel- 
gium, Switzerland,  and  in  parts  of  southern  Ger- 
many where  women  are  employed  in  railroads,  tele- 
graph, telephone,  and  postal  service.  That  in  all 
these  spheres  talent  and  training  must  decide  is  a 
matter  of  course ;  but  that  talent  and  training  should 
be  found  wanting  in  Prussian  women  is  scarcely 
credible. 

The  necessity  of  having  women  in  certain  spheres 
of  action  where  formerly  they  were  not  found  has 
made  itself  felt  chiefly  in  the  medical  profession. 
It  is  generally  acknowledged  that  female  physi- 
cians have  become  a  necessity,  owing  to  the  phe- 
nomenal increase  of  female  maladies.  Yet,  rarely 
does  any  one  take  the  part  of  women  to  oppose 
those  arguments  of  male  physicians  which  are 
not  always  prompted  by  the  purest  of  motives. 
These  men,  strange  to  say,  have  recently  found 
an  eloquent  ally  in  Prof.  Wilhelm  "Waldeyer, 
who,  in  the  last  congress  of  natural  scientists  at 
Cologne,  gave  utterance  to  a  loud  protest  against 
the  opening  of  the  medical  profession  to  wo- 
men. I  can  not  leave  this  protest  unnoticed  in 
view  of  the  elevated  position  "Waldeyer  occupies, 


WOMEN  IN  ANCIENT  TIMES.  133 

and  because  lie  touches  some  points  of  vital  im- 
portance. 

If  "Waldeyer  intends  to  say  that  among  the  an- 
cient civilized  nations  the  position  of  women  has 
been  equally  favorable  with  that  of  men,  it  needs 
better  proofs  than  such  examples  furnish  as  the 
"hetaeri"  of  Greece,  who  participated  in  politics 
(das  politisirende  IIetaerenthum\  or  the  women  of 
the  Roman  empire.  If  these  women  knew  no  social 
barrier,  other  causes  hindered  them  from  accom- 
plishing anything  in  art  or  science.  Their  sisters 
were  incapable  of  rising  because  of  mechanical 
drudgery  or  paralyzing  oppression  of  unworthy 
dependence ;  but  they  were  enervated  by  luxury, 
and  had  become  incapable  of  intellectual  initiative ; 
they  could  at  most  only  play  coquettishly  with 
intellectual  questions.  A  double  curse  rested  upon 
woman  during  ancient  times — a  mind-killing  op- 
pression of  mechanical  work,  or  else  the  enervating 
charm  of  voluptuous  indolence.  "Woman  was  either 
a  slave  or  an  article  of  luxury.  The  woman  of  the 
middle  ages,  also,  though  she  began  to  distinguish 
herself  by  more  refined  culture  of  the  mind,  and- 
often  found  satisfaction  in  it,  did  not  know  the 
strongest  incentives  to  intellectual  work — neither 
the  necessity  of  professional  labor  nor  the  feeling 
of  outer  and  inner  independence  that  has  been 


134:  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

developed  so  strongly  in  our  time,  nor  even  the 
intellectual  need  which  is  perceived  more  acutely 
now  than  during  the  middle  ages — ages  that  had 
for  material  and  for  intellectual  need  an  equally  ap- 
plicable panacea,  the  convent.  Hence  we  are  justi- 
fied in  saying,  that  only  in  our  modern  age  have 
conditions  arisen  that  enable  woman  to  show  what 
she  can  do. 

But  I  admit  that  if  in  these  women  a  great 
creative  power  had  been  alive  they  never  would 
have  tolerated  the  pressure  of  the  unfavorable  cir- 
cumstances mentioned.  I  furthermore  readily  ad- 
mit that,  in  comparing  the  intellectual  talents  of 
the  two  sexes,  we  find  that  creative  power  in  much 
greater  degree  in  man  than  in  woman,  hence,  that 
science  and  art  will  till  doomsday  be  promoted  more 
by  man  than  by  woman.  Waldeyer  confronts  this 
creative  activity  by  woman's  receptivity ;  but  he  en- 
tirely forgets  that  between  them  lies  a  third  activity 
— the  practical  application  of  science  and  art.  It 
may  be  possible  that  a  woman  rarely  if  ever  essen- 
tially promotes  science ;  but  is  that  a  reason  why 
.  she  should  not  practice  it  ?  If  a  line  is  to  be  drawn 
around  the  practice  of  learned  professions  where 
independent  creative  activity  begins,  it  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  the  women,  with  few  excep- 
tions, will  stand  outside  of  that  line,  Imt  also  ninety 


ORIGINALITY  NOT  THE  STANDARD.         135 

per  cent  of  the  men.  If  all  the  male  physicians  and 
teachers  who  are  not  capable  of  promoting  science 
independently  be  excluded  from  their  professions, 
nine  tenths  of  mankind  would  not  know  to  whom 
to  apply  for  relief  in  case  of  sickness,  or  would  not 
know  to  whom  to  appeal  for  education.  Why  the 
capability  of  independent  scientific  work  should  be 
made  a  criterion  for  the  practitioner  I  fail  to  com- 
prehend. A  physician  or  a  teacher  who  has  the 
talent  for  original  work  is  not  unconditionally  the 
best  in  his  profession ;  he  is  apt  to  neglect  liis 
daily  duties.  The  woman  whose  mental  ability  is, 
if  not  sufficient  for  essential  promotion  of  science, 
at  any  rate  fully  sufficient  for  an  independent  prac- 
tice of  the  physician's  or  teacher's  profession  will 
concentrate  all  her  attention  upon  the  practical  ap- 
plication of  her  professional  knowledge  ;  and,  if 
looked  at  from  a  disinterested  standpoint,  she  ought 
to  be  welcomed,  because  she  relieves  man  and  liber- 
ates his  powers  for  the  further  promotion  of  sci- 
ence ;  and  if,  as  Waldeyer  fears,  the  number  of  men 
devoting  themselves  to  the  medical  profession  will 
decrease  if  women  gain  admission  to  it,  this  could 
only  be  deplored  in  case  men  were  actually  superior 
to  women  in  their  practical  skill  also ;  but  competi- 
tion alone  can  prove  it. 

Prof.  Waldeyer  is  right.      "  The  mind  is  the 


136  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

most  terrible  weapon  of  the  human  being."  This 
sentence  being  true,  I  long  to  be  able  to  see  why  the 
men  constantly  employ  physical  strength  in  order  to 
keep  women  from  the  intellectual  arena !  If  it  is 
true  "that  in  all  cases  in  which  man  and  woman 
in  free  competition  enter  any  sphere  of  action 
woman  is  always  defeated,"  why,  then,  move  heaven 
and  earth  in  order  to  keep  her  from  being  defeat- 
ed ?  Why  does  Prof.  Waldeyer  call  upon  the 
authorities  to  protect  the  stronger  sex  against  the 
weaker?  It  must  be  that  there  is  something  not 
quite  right  in  the  female  brain ;  for  not  even  the 
logic  of  such  an  argument  is  understood  by  it. 

However,  science  is  said  to  suffer  when  women 
enter  the  learned  professions,  and  the  men  are  not 
strong  enough  to  keep  it  from  harm !  It  is  really 
a  very  fine  psychological  touch  that  makes  Adam 
say,  "  The  woman  gave  me  of  the  tree  and  I  did 
eat."  The  same  thing  is  expressed  by  Max  Nor- 
dau,  in  a  preface  which  I  dislike  to  see  in  the 
book  of  a  woman ;  he  says  that  the  women  are  the 
cause  of  the  degeneration  of  German  literature — 
"  the  woman  gave  it  to  me  and  I  did  eat."  The 
objection  is  scarcely  to  be  taken  in  earnest. 

In  what  Prof.  Waldeyer  next  says  of  sexual 
differentiation  and  the  division  of  labor  resulting 
therefrom  there  is  much  truth.  He  draws  the 


THE  SPHERE  OP  WOMAN.  137 

conclusion  from  it  that  woman  had  better  stay 
within  that  sphere  in  which  she  possesses  natural 
powers  and  capability  for  development.  Exactly ; 
but  what  sphere  is  that  ?  Man  decides  that  for  her. 
Much  is  said  of  natural  instincts.  If  at  present  the 
women  demand  in  ever  increasing  numbers  to  have 
their  share  in  the  work  of  civilization,  in  the  pro- 
fession wliich  the  men  have  claimed  for  themselves, 
I  think  that  tliis  is  instinct,  a  feeling  or  conscious- 
ness that  their  natural  sphere  is  more  extended  than 
the  one  assigned  to  them  hitherto.  It  is,  in  other 
words,  a  resentment  of  nature  against  those  who 
intend  to  oppress  it.  The  necessary  division  of 
labor  does  not  seem  to  me  to  agree  with  the  di- 
vision of  vocations  of  which  Prof.  Waldeyer  speaks 
so  plausibly.  According  to  him,  we  women  should 
have  to  claim  a  good  deal  more,  because  the  voca- 
tions now  all  belong  to  men.  Mrs.  Weber  calls  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  the  Chinese  in  the  United 
States  already  do  laundry  work ;  is  that,  perhaps, 
to  1x3  claimed  by  men  as  man's  vocation  ?  But  we 
women  are  very  tolerant ;  none  of  us  protest  against 
that.  We  modestly  demand  nothing  else  than  that, 
mutatis  mutandis,  Lessing's  questions  regarding  the 
preacher  and  the  dramatist  be  applied :  "  May  a 
man  devote  himself  to  woman's  work  ?  Why  not, 
if  he  will  ?  May  a  woman  practice  man's  calling  ? 


138   HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

Why  not,  if  she  can  ? "  So  far  as  Nature  dictates 
a  division  of  vocations,  we  all  agree.  Mathilde 
Lammers  is  right  when  she  says :  "  At  the  anvil  I 
shall  always  imagine  a  man ;  at  the  cradle,  always 
a  woman."  The  inner  household,  the  management 
of  the  family,  are  things  which  a  woman  will  never 
give  up ;  the  outward  defense  of  the  peace  of  the 
house  will  always  be  assigned  to  the  greater  physi- 
cal strength  of  the  man.  In  this  division  there  is 
nature ;  but  not  in  the  separation  of  intellectual 
and  mechanical  labor,  of  which  the  latter,  though 
claiming  a  great  amount  of  physical  exertion,  is 
willingly  assigned  to  the  wife ;  the  former,  as  the 
more  interesting,  more  satisfactory,  and  more  lucra- 
tive, is  claimed  by  the  husband.  Women  have  the 
same  right  to  intellectual  labor  that  the  men  have, 
and  the  differentiation  of  sexes  will  only  partly  be 
expressed  in  the  division  of  vocations.  It  will 
partly  be  felt  in  the  individual  manner  in  which 
the  same  vocation  is  considered  and  practiced  by 
the  different  sexes.  If  man,  for  instance,  will 
bring  to  the  profession  of  teaching  greater  acute- 
ness  of  thought,  better  system,  and  greater  power, 
the  woman  will  furnish  greater  versatility,  power 
of  adaptation,  and,  above  all,  more  patience.  If 
both  sexes  participate,  the  profession  can  only  gain 
by  it ;  one  sex  will  learn  from  the  other.  To  this 


CONDITIONS  OF  EXISTENCE.  139 

it  is  to  be  added,  that  in  the  profession  of  teaching 
and  the  medical  profession  the  fact  of  there  being 
two  sexes  in  the  human  race  is  an  additional  cause 
for  employing  both;  girls  are  better  taught  by 
women,  boys  by  men,  and  many  sick  women  want 
to  be  treated  by  women  only. 

Despite  all  objections  that  he  raises,  Prof.  Wal- 
deyer  acknowledges  that  it  is  a  serious  task  "  to  se- 
cure for  women  other  conditions  of  existence  "  ;  he 
grants  that  the  woman  question  deserves  intense 
and  permanent  interest.  But  I  fail  to  find  in  what 
other  manner  that  interest  should  take  effect,  except 
in  removing  the  barriers  which  prevent  woman 
from  creating  her  own  "  conditions  of  existence." 
That  is  the  only  way  she  can  be  helped.  I  believe 
that  Prof.  Walcleyer  is  serious  in  claiming  a  sym- 
pathy with  the  cause.  He  disdains,  though  an  op- 
ponent of  higher  female  education  on  principle,  the 
many  favorite  and  often-used  exaggerations' and  mis- 
representations, although  he  lays  too  much  stress 
upon  the  opinion  of  some  unchivalrous  opponents 
of  women.  But  search  as  carefully  as  I  may,  I  can 
find  no  way  in  which  the  interest  spoken  of  can  be 
promoted,  and,  strange  to  say,  he  does  not  indicate 
any  either.  For  the  proposition  he  makes,  to  leave 
it  to  the  professors  to  admit  some  specially  talented 
women  to  their  lectures,  can  scarcely  be  considered 


140  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

as  seriously  promoting  the  interests  of  women.  A 
diploma  of  graduation  is  demanded  of  the  man,  not 
special  talent.  All  men  intend  to  earn  their  bread 
—those  who  are  not  specially  talented  as  well  as 
the  rest,  and  they  intend  to  secure  it  by  means  of 
diligence  and  average  results.  The  same  holds  good 
with  women.  Why  should  exceptional  conditions 
be  imposed  upon  them  ? 

But  enough  of  this,  and  enough  of  the  medical 
profession.  Among  the  practical  reasons  why  the 
universities  should  be  opened  to  women  may  be 
counted  the  necessity  to  procure  female  teachers 
who  are  thoroughly  versed  in  science. 

How  I  personally  regard  the  question,  I  have 
expressed  emphatically  enough.  I  should  consider 
it  a  mistake  if  any  university  studies,  especially 
philology,  were  made  obligatory  in  the  highest 
grade  of  girls'  high  schools.  Though  I  have  been 
convinced  that  the  average  woman  (where  hundreds 
study  it  will  hardly  do  to  speak  of  exceptions)  is 
capable  of  pursuing  scientific  studies  to  a  much 
higher  degree  than  I  had  assumed  at  first,  and 
though  I  have  been  convinced  also  that  woman 
may  preserve  her  womanliness  in  such  a  pursuit,  I 
have  nevertheless  not  changed  my  views.  Every 
one  knows  that  the  English  universities  are  not,  like 
ours,  special  schools  of  the  four  faculties,  but  more 


HIGH-ROADS  AND  FOOT-PATHS. 

like  nurseries  of  general  culture.  On  account  of 
tliis  character  and  owing  to  their  less  high  aims,  the 
English  university  is  more  suitable,  according  to  my 
ideas,  for  preparing  teachers  who  are  not  neces- 
sarily to  be  scholars.  But  such  things  are  matters 
of  opinion,  and  I  can  not  expect  to  see  the  same 
kind  of  a  bark  grow  on  all  trees.  I,  for  my  part, 
have  wished  and  asked  for  the  establishment  of 
special  institutions  for  female  teachers  in  which 
their  studies,  without  injury  to  thoroughness,  are 
directed  with  reference  to  their  future  vocation. 
This  motion  has  been  rejected  abruptly,  without 
opening  ways  upon  which  the  teachers  might  ac- 
quire the  necessary  professional  education.  Every 
attempt  at  realizing  even  partially  the  ideas  men- 
tioned before  will  be  hailed  with  delight  by  me; 
thus,  for  instance,  the  establishment  of  professional 
courses  in  history  and  German  in  the  Victoria  Ly- 
ceum, which  have  been  made  possible  through  the 
warm  interest  which  our  Empress  Frederick  enter- 
tains for  teachers. 

But  that  is  only  a  narrow  foot-path  which  but 
few  can  walk  in.  If  not  any  more  broad  and  straight 
roads  are  to  be  built,  if  under  sanction  of  the  Gov- 
ernment only  these  two  branches  are  to  be  taught  and 
in  one  city  of  Germany  alone  (mere  private  enter- 
prise has  not  the  least  value  for  obvious  reasons),  it 


142  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

would  seem  unjust  to  refuse  female  teachers  who  can 
not  walk  this  road  permission  to  select  another,  even 
though  it  be  a  roundabout  one.  Hence,  if  they  (as 
I  have  noticed  repeatedly)  have  the  desire  to  pursue 
a  university  study,  believing  that  thereby  they  will 
find  greater  satisfaction  for  their  own  ambition,  no 
one  should  hinder  them  in  that.  Since  the  author- 
ities guarantee  the  women  teachers  in  their  certifi- 
cates of  examination  the  right  to  teach  in  the  high- 
est grades  of  school,  the  acquisition  to  this  for- 
mal right  is  not  dependent  upon  any  definite  uni- 
versity course,  and  hence  the  women  may  select 
whatever  branches  they  see  fit.  I  consider  a  mere 
university  course  unfit  for  the  preparation  of  female 
teachers,  and  I  am  very  decided  in  my  belief  that 
it  would  be  attended  by  great  dangers  for  our  girls' 
schools  if  a  university  course  were  made  obligatory. 
And  yet  the  necessity  for  granting  female  teachers 
the  opportunity  to  learn  true  science  somewhere  is 
so  urgent  that,  in  view  of  the  hopelessness  of  seeing 
my  own  plans  realized,  I  advocate  this  optional 
studying.  If  it  is  an  evil,  it  is  at  least  the  smaller 
of  two  evils,  and  we  are  almost  forced  to  choose  it. 
After  the  explicit  refusal  of  our  certainly  modest 
demands,  the  question  arises  :  Shall  our  teachers 
again  be  condemned  to  elementary  knowledge  which 
precludes  higher  aspirations,  or  shall  they  at  least 


OVERESTIMATE  OP  PHILOLOGY.  143 

have  a  possibility  of  higher  studies  after  leaving  the 
normal  school  ?  Shall  they  in  this  roundabout  way 
attempt  to  acquire  that  practical  and  theoretical 
knowledge  which  should  be  combined  by  all  means  ? 
In  Zurich  this  way  has  been  adopted  for  some  time, 
and  it  is  my  opinion  that  it  would  be  unjust  to  keep 
those  who  want  to  use  it  from  doing  so.  It  is  con- 
fidently expected  that  scholarships  will  be  granted 
in  time,  as  has  been  done  for  students  of  medicine 
and  the  natural  sciences.  But  I  should  raise  my 
voice  to  warn  against  an  overestimate  of  philological 
studies.  A  few  years'  sojourn  in  foreign  countries 
is  of  more  decided  value,  provided  sufficient  prepa- 
ration has  been  had,  than  philological  studies  in  a 
university ;  I  mean  for  female  teachers  of  the  upper 
grades  of  girls'  schools,  because  those  studies  in  a 
university  contain  much  that  is  totally  unproductive 
for  our  girls'  schools.  Literary,  historical,  and 
scientific  studies  obtained  in  German  universities 
could  be  recommended  for  female  teachers,  if — yes, 
if  there  was  a  Germany  in  which  science  was  free 
for  women  also. 

That  many  of  my  colleagues,  as  I  have  become 
aware  of  late,  would  rather  take  a  course  in  a  uni- 
versity than  a  course  better  fitted  for  themselves 
as  well  as  for  the  subsequent  application  in  school, 
is  easily  explained  by  the  fact  that  man,  upon  whose 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

opinion  all  these  things  hinge,  will  not  consider  a 
study  worth  much  unless  it  is  the  same  in  kind  with 
his.  The  course  I  have  suggested  may  require,  per- 
haps, the  same  exertion,  the  same  sacrifices  of  time 
and  money,  without  offering  the  same  advantages 
that  university  study  and  university  degrees  possess. 
The  future  will  judge  these  things  differently. 
Meanwhile  we  have  to  reckon  with  arguments  of 
this  kind,  and  it  will  be  owing  to  them  if  such  ar- 
rangements as  have  been  made  in  the  Victoria 
Lyceum,  gratifying  as  they  may  be,  do  not  in 
time  to  come  find  the  recognition  and  use  which 
are  desirable.  Another  unfortunate  feature  is 
this  —  the  female  teachers  studying  in  the  Ber- 
lin Victoria  Lyceum  have  to  teach  during  the 
day.  If  the  authorities  would  here  use  some  of 
their  prerogatives  to  ease  the  burden  of  these  teach- 
ers by  giving  them  a  leave  of  absence  for  a  portion 
of  the  day,  as  is  done  in  like  cases  with  the  male 
teachers,  much  would  be  done  to  make  the  experi- 
ment a  success.  As  it  is,  it  appears  to  me  as  though 
a  beginner  in  the  art  of  swimming  is  made  to  go 
into  the  water  with  a  heavy  load  around  his  neck. 
But  perhaps  the  prospect  of  a  future  and  appropri- 
ate employment  would  make  these  women  bear  even 
this  doiible  burden.  Woman,  like  man,  dislikes  to 
work  in  vain.  But  what  is  to  be  expected  in  this 


DISADVANTAGES  OF  WOMEN.  145 

direction  can  best  be  expressed  with  Dante's  words, 
"  Ye  who  enter  here  leave  all  hope  behind."  It 
is  not  impossible  that  these  circumstances  make  the 
courses  offered  in  the  Lyceum  a  gift  from  the  Danai. 
If  they  prove  a  failure  (im  Sande  verlaufen),  it  will 
be  alleged  that  it  proves  a  want  of  desire  to  learn 
on  the  part  of  woman,  while,  in  fact,  it  would  be  at- 
tributable to  other  causes.  Meanwhile,  let  us  hope. 
It  is  a  very  favorable  sign  for  our  female  teachers 
that  they  desire  a  higher  education,  and  that  they 
have,  without  any  apparent  prospect  for  promo- 
tion and  in  spite  of  being  occupied  all  day  with 
teaching,  undertaken  these  higher  studies.  Let  us 
wish  and  hope  that  their  strength  and  courage  will 
hold  out  to  the  end.  If  no  other  schools,  then,  at 
least  the  private  schools  will  actively  appreciate 
their  efforts. 


10 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CAUSE   OF   FAILURE   IN   GERMANY. 

WE  have  now  brought  together  sufficient  mate- 
rial to  proceed  to  a  systematic  reply  to  the  question, 
Why  is  it  that  the  women  of  Germany  do  not  suc- 
ceed in  a  cause  in  which  the  women  of  other  civil- 
ized nations  have  succeeded  ?  Do  they  have  to  look 
for  the  causes  in  themselves,  or  are  the  men  the 
causes,  or  can  it  be  accounted  for  by  insurmountable 
obstacles  ? 

For  the  purpose  of  arriving  at  a  satisfactory  an- 
swer, I  will  reverse  the  order  of  these  three  queries 
and  begin  with  the  third,  for  the  unfavorable  cir- 
cumstances are  invariably  put  into  the  foreground 
when  we  women  point  out  that  in  other  countries 
the  woman  question  is  about  to  be  solved  by  granting 
them  the  requisite  liberties  and  concessions.  We  are 
told  that  there  are  as  yet  a  great  many  men  to  be 
provided  for ;  but  that  is  the  case  in  other  countries, 
also,  where  their  sex  does  not  give  them  so  much  of 
a  preference  as  in  Germany.  I  know  full  well  that 


CAUSES  OP  FAILURE  IN  GERMANY.        147 

an  inquiry  for  the  reasons  of  this  preference  is 
thought  very  indiscreet.  But  to  an  unbiased  mind 
it  will  ever  seem  odd  that  the  strong  man  should 
find  the  protection  of  the  government  so  much  more 
readily  than  the  weak  woman,  who,  in  the  battle  for 
subsistence,  has  such  serious  disadvantages  that  it 
would  seem  as  though  she  deserved  being  taken  care 
of  first.  Is  man  a  human  being  of  the  first  class, 
woman  one  of  the  second,  in  Germany  ?  Or  is  it 
supposed  that  hunger  and  privation  are  less  painful 
to  woman  ?  We  are  told  the  man  deserves  to  be 
provided  for  first,  because  he  has  to  provide  for 
others.  Yet  I  know  of  no  woman  earning  her  own 
living  who  does  not  support  either  her  old  parents, 
or  brothers  at  school,  or  other  needy  members  of  her 
family.  Hence  the  principle  can  not  be  applied 
against  all  women.  And,  in  truth,  it  is  not  appli- 
cable at  all ;  for  the  inference  would  be  that  mar- 
ried men — not  only  under  like  qualifications,  where 
such  a  preference  might  be  justified  sometimes  but 
at  all  times — would  be  preferred  to  unmarried  ones ; 
that  the  claim  for  support  should  rise  in  exact  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  children.  In  carrying  out 
this  principle,  the  salaries  would  be  in  proportion  to 
the  wealth  of  children,  and  every  new  arrival  in  the 
family  would  be  the  "  cause  of  an  increase  of  sal- 
ary " ;  furthermore,  that  the  salary  should  stand  in 


148  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

inverse  proportion  to  private  income,  and  so  forth. 
Who  would  advance  such  absurdities !  But  if  one 
refuses  to  accept  its  consequences,  the  principle  is  of 
no  account.  Indeed,  it  is  only  held  up  against  wo- 
men. When  men  among  themselves  compete  with 
one  another  one  thing  only  is  taken  into  considera- 
tion— the  position  is  given  to  him  who  is  the  most 
capable.  Why  is  not  this  extended  over  both  sexes  ? 
And  why  is  not  the  opportunity  offered  to  women 
as  well  as  to  men  to  obtain  the  requirements  want- 
ing ?  There  are  evidently  only  two  cases  possible — 
either  all  men  are  more  capable  than  all  women 
(then  the  former  have  nothing  to  fear  from  the 
competition  of  the  latter  and  could  refute  the  wo- 
men by  granting  their  demands)  or  some  women 
are  more  capable  than  some  men ;  is  it  just  in  that 
case  to  keep  the  less  capable  men  in  positions  that 
by  right  belong  to  the  more  capable  women  ? 

In  short,  I  shall  have  to  be  satisfied  with  an  an- 
swer to  my  question  like  that  which  I  heard  some- 
body give  a  little  girl  recently  who  complained  that 
her  brother  had  received  a  larger  piece  of  cake  than 
she :  "  Well,  is  not  he  a  boy  ? "  The  answer  had  a 
silencing  effect. 

But  let  us  further  examine  the  conditions  pecul- 
iarly German  that  are  said  to  be  always  obstacles 
in  the  way  of  higher  education  of  women.  "  The 


EQUALITY  WANTED.  149 

conditions  that  exist  at  our  universities  do  not  admit 
it."  Why  not  ?  The  examinations  are  more  difficult 
than  elsewhere.  May  be,  but  who  asks  that  they 
should  be  made  easier  for  women  ?  The  demand  is 
that  women  be  admitted  under  precisely  the  same 
conditions  applied  in  the  case  of  men.  If  the  women 
prove  less  capable  to  come  up  to  the  requirements, 
as  may  probably  be  the  case  in  the  beginning,  it 
could  only  please  those  who  desire  to  limit  the 
higher  studies  of  women;  but  that  the  degree  of 
difficulty  of  the  examinations  should  be  a  cause  for 
non-admittance  of  the  woman  is  incomprehensible 
to  me.  Furthermore :  "  Our  students  would  never 
tolerate  females  as  fellow-students."  Can  we  really 
be  so  far  behind  other  nations  in  culture  ?  But  that 
leads  me  to  a  point  that  deserves  a  more  extensive 
treatment. 

It  is  true  that  the  German  student  has  yet  many 
traits  of  the  old  university  life  (voin  alten  Burscheri), 
still,  I  think,  he  has  enough  reverence  for  woman 
to  respect  her,  even  if  he  sees  her  walking  unfa- 
miliar roads,  provided  she  remains  a  woman.  But 
I  do  not  require  him  to  respect  women  to  whom 
science  is  the  subordinate,  and  the  life  of  a  student 
the  principal  object  in  view.  I  fear,  in  this  respect, 
that  much  mischief  has  been  done  by  foreign  women 
in  Switzerland,  who  have  thus  made  the  life  of  their 


150  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

successors,  who  are  bent  upon  pursuing  science,  a 
life  of  many  hardships.  The  cause  of  unwomanly  ex- 
cesses may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  young  girls 
in  the  university  often  have  no  choice  except  to  live 
as  male  students  do  without  any  restraint,  to  take 
their  meals  and  to  lodge  without  intimate  associa- 
tion with  older  educated  women.  Of  course,  gradu- 
ally but  surely,  the  sense  for  that  which  is  proper 
gets  blunted,  and  the  maxim  "  Allowed  is  what  is 
proper "  must  yield  to  "  Allowed  is  what  pleases." 
I  can  suggest  only  one  remedy,  namely,  the  one 
that  was  applied  in  England,  of  course  adapted  to 
existing  institutions.  I  mean  the  establishment  of 
boarding  institutions  in  which  the  students  asso- 
ciate with  older,  finely  educated  women  and  are 
subject  not  to  harsh  discipline,  but  to  moral  influ- 
ence ;  homes  in  which  the  student  enjoys  the  same 
liberty  that  an  educated  and  cultured  lady  has,  or 
better,  takes  in  her  own  home.  For  the  liberty  to 
lead  a  street  or  tavern  life,  which  seems  to  be  the 
highest  ambition  for  a  young  man  after  entering  the 
university,  is  one  which  a  cultured  woman  will  not 
take  even  where  the  circumstances  would  permit 
it.  Since  she  can  not  find  interesting  society  in 
taverns  and  on  the  street,  she  needs  it  all  the  more 
at  homef^A  woman  must  not,  during  the  years  of 
study,  lose  the  instincts  which  make  her  seek  her 


HOW  TO  LIVE  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY.       151 

happiness  at  home ;  she  must  not  lose  the  standard 
of  measurement  for  what  she  may  or  may  not  do. 
In  time  to  come  and  under  the  influence  of  another 
kind  of  education  she  will  be  enabled  to  avoid 
breakers  on  which  she  is  likely  to  experience  ship- 
wreck at  present.  Independent  and  happily  organ- 
ized natures  may  even  now  be  able  to  manage  their 
own  affairs  without  danger  for  their  future  lives, 
but  for  the  majority  of  German  girls,  raised  as  they 
mostly  are,  dependent  upon  others,  a  home  like  the 
English  home-colleges  (though  less  luxurious),  with 
pleasant  surroundings,  musical  evenings  and  teas,  a 
little  gentle  discipline  (for  only  such  it  must  be), 
would  be  very  welcome  and  useful.  Many  parents 
would  be  more  willing  to  permit  their  daughters  to 
satisfy  their  craving  for  higher  studies,  as  Mrs. 
Weber  sagely  remarks,  if  it  was  not  for  the — 
blameless — living  alone  outside  of  the  family  circle. 
As  the  young  female  students  need  confidential 
advice  at  home,  so  they  need  occasionally  advice 
and  aid  in  their  studies.  Both  can  not,  as  is  the 
case  with  young  men,  be  given  by  the  professors. 
With  less  embarrassment  and  more  confidence  the 
young  ladies  would  approach  a  woman  for  that  pur- 
pose. It  is  reasonable  to  think  that  if  a  woman 
stood  at  the  head  of  such  an  institution  (as  is  the 
case  in  Girton  College),  a  woman  who  knows  the 


152  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

course  of  study  pursued  by  the  students  and  has 
been  graduated  herself,  she  would  give  wise  counsel 
and  active  assistance  better  than  men  could.  In 
University  College,  in  London,  a  lady  superintend- 
ent has  an  office  in  the  building  where  she  may  be 
called  upon  by  the  young  lady  students  who  need 
advice  and  assistance.  This  has  proved  to  be  prac- 
tical and  effective,  and  does  not  lead  to  misunder- 
standings, since  the  conduct  of  the  professors  directs 
that  of  the  students.  There  can  be  110  objections  to 
serious  intellectual  work  done  by  women  who  live 
together,  work  done  for  a  serious  purpose.  I  leave 
out  of  consideration  all  who  consider  the  pursuit  of 
higher  knowledge  unwomanly,  for  I  have  no  argu- 
ments to  convince  them.  And  I  confidently  believe 
that  the  male  students  of  Germany  would  not  treat 
the  women  improperly  who  thus  come  to  be  their 
fellow-students. 

In  short,  it  does  not  seem  to  lie  in  external  cir- 
cumstances that  the  women  of  Germany  are  not 
successful.  Even  pecuniary  difficulties  can  not  be 
advanced  as  causes  of  their  signal  failure.  Germany 
is  not  so  poor  that  it  might  not  create  facilities  for 
higher  education  of  women,  since  the  existing  insti- 
tutions for  men  could  mostly  be  shared. 

Is  it  the  men,  then,  who  cause  the  signal  failure  ? 
Without  doubt  they  are  partly  the  cause.  For 


MEN  PARTLY  THE  CAUSE  OP  FAILURE.    153 

many  years  certain  women  have  tried  to  interest 
men  of  influence  in  their  cause,  but  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, they  have  not  found  the  reception  that  the 
women  found  among  men  in  other  countries.  The 
year  in  which  Girton  College  was  founded,  and  the 
professors  and  students  of  Cambridge  observed  its 
growth  with  increasing  interest,  is  the  same  year 
(1872)  in  which  a  teachers'  congress  at  Weimar 
met  with  scorn  and  derision  the  women  who  advo- 
cated the  plan  of  founding  a  modest  academy  for 
women.  The  propositions  and  petitions  which  sub- 
sequently were  submitted  to  the  authorities  with 
reference  to  that  plan  were  left  wholly  unnoticed. 
The  authorities  engaged  men  exclusively  as  princi- 
pals in  higher  girls'  schools,  although  women  may 
be  had  who  have  through  self-instruction  gained  the 
necessary  requirements  and  have  proved  in  private 
schools  that  they  are  capable  of  managing  schools 
as  well  as  teaching  the  higher  branches.  A  motion 
emanating  from  the  "  Lette-Verein "  to  establish 
higher  schools  of  learning  for  women  was  rejected ; 
the  German  "Woman's  League,  who  made  similar 
attempts,  was  equally  unsuccessful,  though  they  had 
such  active  women  as  Mrs.  L.  Otto-Peters,  Mrs.  A. 
Schmidt,  and  Mrs.  H.  Goldschmidt  as  spokeswomen. 
AVherever  woman  was  given  a  trial  in  any  branch 
it  was  done  with  ill-concealed  distrust.  She  was 


154  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

watched  suspiciously,  and  at  the  first  signs  of  weak- 
ness or  error  the  trial  was  pronounced  a  signal  fail- 
ure. Wherever  women  were  busy  in  "  man's  call- 
ings" they  found,  if  not  direct  malevolence,  cer- 
tainly not  a  hearty  reception. 

I  am  reporting  a  few  facts  only.  It  would  be 
easy  to  enumerate  many  more.  What  is  their  cause  ? 
It  would  be  unjust  to  account  for  them  exclusively  by 
man's  ill-will  and  fear  of  competition,  though  these 
motives  must  be  considered.  A  great  number  of  men 
are  indifferent ;  they  never  have  thought  about  the 
woman  question ;  they  do  not  know  the  needs  that 
have  called  the  question  into  life.  That  they  do  not 
know  them  is  to  be  charged  to  their  wives.  The 
wife  should  persuade  the  husband  to  support  the 
cause  of  women.  That  cause  generally  lies  remote 
from  men's  professional  walks.  What  they  hear  of 
it  are  accidental  disconnected  fragments  of  the  great 
discussion,  so  unsatisfactory  that  the  men  turn  away 
from  them  disgusted,  amused,  or  exasperated.  It  is 
interesting  to  observe  that  most  of  those  who  feel 
exasperated  are  among  the  most  chivalrous  of  their 
sex.  Even  men  with  exalted  views  of  women,  men 
with  ideas  of  her  difficult  natural  calling  and  the 
duties  it  requires,  turn  with  disgust  from  the  propo- 
sition to  set  up  a  new  order  of  things  for  the  dear 
ones  whom  they  are  in  duty  bound  to  support  or 


MEN  DO  NOT  KNOW  TUB  FACTS.          155 

protect.  I  have  often  had  occasion  to  notice  that 
this  chivalrous  idea  caused  men  to  totally  disregard 
the  actual  conditions  under  which  woman  lives,  and 
particularly  those  numerous  unfortunates  who  have 
no  such  knight,  but  are  obliged  to  face  the  hard 
conditions  of  life  single-handed,  conditions  that 
must  be  met.  Every  noble  man  can  be  convinced 
of  his  prejudices  by  logic  and  reference  to  existing 
facts,  and  he  will  be  ready  to  yield  to  the  right 
which  he  had  unknowingly  disregarded. 

But  there  are  other  men  to  be  considered,  those 
who  apply  derision  as  the  only  answer  to  the  wo- 
man question.  "  Scoffing  ends  where  comprehen- 
sion begins,  says  a  psychologist.  Indeed,  mock- 
ery in  this  case  can  have  no  other  origin  than 
absolute  ignorance.  Every  man  with  but  half  a 
conscience  would  be  frightened  if  he  knew  the 
actual  misery  that  has  originated  the  woman  ques- 
tion and  become  convinced  that  at  the  expense  of 
such  misery  he  had  been  entertaining  his  wit ;  that 
with  his  derision,  which  he  had  been  using  so  vic- 
toriously, he  had  been  killing  a  thousand  possibili- 
ties that  might  have  given  bread  to  the  hungry, 
happiness  to  the  unfortunate — yes,  even  saved  to  hon- 
or those  who  are  walking  the  ways  of  dishonor."  * 

*  Familie  and  Individuum,  by  J.  M.     Frauenberuf,  vol.  ii. 


156  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

If  in  England  the  men  were  better  acquainted 
with  the  woman  question,  and  hence  erred  less 
through  ignorance,  the  cause  of  this  may  be  found 
in  their  own  wives  who  informed  them  of  its  bear- 
ings ;  generally,  it  may  be  said,  the  married  women 
in  England  interested  themselves  in  the  question 
very  actively.  I  shall  certainly  not  attack  German 
family  life.  It  is  distinguished  from  that  of  other 
nations  in  many  features  which  I  would  not  have 
otherwise,  but  it  is  more  apt  to  make  the  women 
selfish;  that  is,  it  engenders  family-mania — (selbstr 
suchtig — ader  richtiger  familien-mtchtig).  The  life 
of  a  German  housewife  is  so  completely  lost  in  her 
own  interests  and  those  of  her  family  that  she  gives 
scarcely  a  thought,  with  some  notable  exceptions  of 
course,  to  her  sisters  who  stand  outside,  literally 
starving  intellectually  and  wildly  groping  for  a 
life's  sustenance.  She  neglects  to  enlist  her  hus- 
band for  the  fight  which  the  women  can  undertake 
and  bring  to  a  victorious  issue  only  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  men.  She  remains  inactive  until  her 
own  misery — perhaps  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of 
her  supporter — forces  her  to  reflect  on  the  necessity 
of  opening  for  woman  ways  upon  which  she  might 
obtain  what  she  needs,  and  what  no  one  is  likely  to 
give  her  of  his  own  free  will. 

There  are  even  cases  in  which  the  wife  holds 


DANGER  IN*  HIGHER  EDUCATION.          157 

back  the  husljand  from  entering  the  movement  in 
favor  of  women.  That  is  a  fatal  mistake.  In  my 
opinion,  there  is  no  nobler  and  higher  calling  for 
woman  than  to  live  for  her  family  in  the  true  sense 
of  the  word,  and  no  one  deserves  greater  reverence 
than  a  mother  who  is  to  her  children  what  she 
shonld  be.  But  just  because  of  my  reverence 
for  the  German  housewife,  as  she  shonld  be,  for 
the  woman  who  not  only  educates  her  daughters, 
but  is  also  able  to  guard  the  interests  of  her  hus- 
band and  her  adult  sons,  I  would  protest  against 
the  superstition,  that  the  housewife  and  the  scien- 
tifically educated  woman  are  incongruities  which 
threaten  to  rend  German  life  in  twain.  For  the 
wife  who  does  not  understand  the  great  interests  of 
her  husband  is  not  able  to  foster  and  increase  his 
idealism  which  disdains  material  for  higher  gains, 
she  will,  on  the  contrary,  endeavor  to  drag  liim 
down  to  her  low  level. 

It  is  said  that  the  best  in  woman  is  something 
quite  different  from  knowledge.  Tliat  is  very  true. 
And  if  she  had  not  this  best  and  had  all  the  wisdom 
and  intelligence  on  earth,  she  would  be  but  like  the 
proverbial  "sounding  brass  and  tinkling  cymbal." 
This  expression  is  more  applicable  to  woman  than 
to  man.  I  go  still  further.  There  are  exceptional 
cases  in  whom  a  sort  of  intuition  seems  to  compen- 


158  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

sate  for  knowledge  wanting ;  who  from  the  depth 
of  their  own  inner  self  derive  revelations  which  to 
others  can  only  come  from  without.  Happy  are 
those  who  come  into  contact  with  such  people. 
Such  beings  are  found  among  men  also  ;  I  only  need 
to  mention  Pestalozzi.  But  these  exceptional  cases 
are  much  rarer  than  is  commonly  taken  for  granted 
as  regards  women,  of  whom  it  is  customary  to  say 
that  they  hit  upon  everything  with  this  sort  of  in- 
tuition. For  the  average  woman  a  thorough  edu- 
cation is  just  as  necessary,  and  exactly  as  valuable, 
as  for  the  man,  even  if  we  leave  out  of  considera- 
tion the  pressing  need  which  urges  her  to  obtain  it. 
What  it  may  mean  for  both,  always  provided  they 
possess  that  one  sine  qua  non  that  I  believe  to  have 
sufficiently  emphasized  in  the  foregoing  arguments. 
Those  err  who  think  education  is  able  to  do  every- 
thing for  the  man  but  nothing  for  the  woman. 

The  fear  of  a  thorough  education  of  women  is 
in  Germany  specifically  modern  ;  the  Middle  Ages 
did  not  entertain  it.  Our  modern  time  has  cre- 
ated the  "  blue-stocking  "  because  it  refused  higher 
knowledge  to  women  and  thus  increased  the  de- 
mand for  it  till  it  became  morbid  and  led  to  all 
kinds  of  eccentricities.  Women,  then,  who  are 
inclined  toward  a  certain  intellectual  indolence  are 
apt  to  cause  the  opinion  in  their  husbands  that 


HAVE  WOMEN  THE  TIME!  159 

women  really  have  no  time  for  any  serious  study, 
and  that  it  would  scarcely  be  advisable  for  them  to 
attempt  it.  This  makes  them  disinclined  to  aid  in 
the  intellectual  liberation  of  women,  being  taught 
to  believe  that  this  would  estrange  them  from  their 
true  vocation.  Since  I  have  seen  the  much  occu- 
pied wife  of  a  clergyman  (whose  house  was  never 
without  visitors,  who  had  several  children  of  her 
own  and  a  large  number  of  foster  children,  and  yet 
contrived  to  look  after  their  wants)  spend  an  hour 
every  noon  in  serious  scientific  study,  not  in  novel 
reading  ;  since  I  know  that  it  is  possible  to  the 
housewife  of  the  present,  even  under  the  most  diffi- 
cult circumstances,  to  foster  her  intellect,  experi- 
ence has  taught  me  that  women  who  are  constantly 
at  work  in  forming  their  intellectual  world  are  best 
adapted  to  fulfill  their  duties  as  housewives  and 
mothers. 

Perhaps  the  circumstances  mentioned  are  the 
causes  of  the  fact  why  we  Germans  have  no  Henry 
Sidgwick,  no  Dr.  Anstie,  and  no  Thomas  Holloway. 

And  yet,  though  we  can  mention  but  few  men 
who  have  actively  advocated  our  cause  (one  of  these 
few  has  been  President  Lette),  the  number  of  those 
who  would  raise  their  voice  for  us,  and  who  have 
justice  enough  to  acknowledge  our  claims  and  the 
necessity  for  their  final  allowance,  is  increasing 


160  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

steadily.  I  have  the  great  pleasure  of  quoting  one, 
in  order  to  show  our  German  women  that  we  need 
not  despair  of  the  assistance  of  thoroughly  educated 
men.  The  movement  in  favor  of  better  profes- 
sional education  of  female  teachers  has  shown  us 
that  last  year. 

Clemens  Nohl  speaks  in  his  "  Pedagogy  for 
Higher  Schools  "  of  the  absolute  necessity  to  grant 
the  female  sex  a  thorough  education,  and  says  the 
mother  needs  it  for  the  sake  of  her  family,  the  un- 
married woman  for  her  own  sake. 

"  That  the  maiden  is  destined  to  become  wife 
and  mother  is  a  proposition  that  sounds  rational  and 
natural,  but  the  world  treats  it  very  impolitely  and 
inconsiderately.  Of  course  this  destiny  is  all  right  if 
the  maiden  finds  a  man  who  can  support  her  and  a 
family,  one  who  is  worthy  of  her  respect  and  love, 
as  she  is  of  his.  Otherwise  this  destiny  is  as  vague 
as  is  the  destiny  of  man  to  virtue,  health,  wealth, 
happiness.  .  .  .  But  a  girl  who  does  not  find  an 
honest  and  well-to-do  man  will  have  to  become 
her  own  supporter,  and  in  that  case  it  can  not  be 
doubtful  that  a  good  school  education  will  in  many 
cases  greatly  assist  an  aspiration  that  is  often  dic- 
tated by  inexorable  need.  And  if  the  state  and 
city  authorities  (who  understand  the  requirements 
of  the  time)  have  for  many  a  century  established 


A   PLEA  FOR  UNMARRIED  WOMEN.         161 

institutions  of  learning,  from  the  lowest  special 
school  up  to  the  university,  in  which  young  men 
can  partly  or  entirely  prepare  themselves  for  their 
future  professions,  why  should  not  the  young  wom- 
en set  up  the  same  claim  ? 

"  Or  shall  in  Germany,  where,  in  centuries  gone 
by,  girls  and  women  were  so  highly  honored,  and 
where  even  now  the  educated  woman  enjoys  the 
undiminished  respect  belonging  to  her — I  mean, 

• 

shall  it  be  attended  with  material  and  moral  dan- 
gers in  Germany  to -be  born  a  girl?  If  educated 
parents  can  not  bequeath  wealth  to  their  children 
— and  that  is  the  rule — shall  the  girls  who  have 
not  found  husbands  (and  such  cases  increase  from 
year  to  year)  eat  the  bread  of  charity  in  the  homes 
of  relations  ?  Shall  they  complain,  aloud  or  secret- 
ly, that  they  can  be  of  no  use  to  mankind  because 
mankind  disdains  their  services,  though  rendered 
willingly,  and  refuses  to  offer  their  intellect  oppor- 
tunities for  application  ?  Shall  they  give  them- 
selves up  to  shallow  or  even  immoral  novels,  or  be- 
come unamiable  gossips,  because  they  have  not 
learned  to  occupy  their  minds  ?  Shall  they  morally 
go  to  ruin  in  the  maelstrom  of  life  ? 

"  There  are  few  institutions  of  learning  requir- 
ing a  certain  degree  of  education  in  which  woman 

can   not   accomplish  acceptable   results ;    and    the 
11 


162  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE, 

privilege  which,  the  male  sex  claimed  in  most 
branches,  and  in  part  still  claims,  is,  if  examined 
closely,  a  most  unjust  one.  Among  these  branches 
is,  first  of  all,  the  profession  of  teaching.  Since 
Pestalozzi  discovered  in  the  mother  the  natural 
teacher  and  educator  and  raised  woman  to  high 
honor  in  this  important  activity  the  employment 
of  female  teachers  has  become  a  live  question,  and 
will  not  disappear  until  the  equality  of  the  sexes 
has  become  an  accomplished  fact  in  the  profes- 
sion. .  .  .  The  time  is  not  very  remote  in  which 
male  teachers  will  be  employed  in  schools  for  boys, 
and  female  teachers  almost  exclusively  in  schools 
for  girls. 

"  A  man  can  not  have  as  clear  a  comprehension 
of  the  nature  of  girls  as  a  woman,  a  representative 
of  the  same  sex,  undoubtedly  has.  He  is  more  apt 
to  make  mistakes  in  treating  them.  Furthermore, 
in  things  essentially  feminine  in  female  education, 
such  as  fostering  the  sense  of  order,  punctuality, 
cleanliness,  graceful  carriage  of  the  body,  propriety, 
and  good  manners,  he  can  not  nearly  so  well  give 
advice  and  exercise  supervision  as  a  female  teach- 
er, with  whom  such  things  are  matters  of  course. 
Again,  the  very  essential  factor  of  education,  per- 
sonal example,  is  almost  wholly  excluded,  because 
woman  has  to  practice,  partly,  at  least,  different 


FEMALE  VERSUS  MALE  TEACHERS.         103 

virtues  from  those  of  man,  and  the  same  virtues 
not  infrequently  appear  in  different  forms  in  the 
two  sexes.  To  employ  young  unmarried  male 
teachers  in  classes  full  of  budding  girls  and  girls 
growing  into  maturity  is  objectionable  from  a  peda- 
gogical and  even  a  moral  point  of  view,  which  it 
is  unnecessary  to  discuss  here.  Older  teachers  are 
often  lacking  in  that  vivacity  in  instruction  which 
girls  need  often  in  a  greater  degree  than  boys  and 
youths. 

"  It  is  true,  there  are  male  teachers  who,  with 
girls  of  all  ages,  succeed  admirably  and  exercise  a 
wholesome  influence  upon  them ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  are  female  teachers  who  accomplish 
nothing  good,  and  even  exercise  a  baneful  influence. 
But  frequentlv  male  teachers  in  girls'  schools  lack- 
ing the  qualities  mentioned  before  will  secure  the 
respect  of  their  pupils  by  strict  discipline  which 
necessitates  frequent  punishment  (and  this  sooner 
makes  girls  unmanageable  than  boys),  or  they  are 
teased  and  cheated  by  cunning  pupils  without  being 
aware  of  it,  while  in  schools  in  which  chiefly  female 
teachers  are  employed  cases  of  discipline  are  rare, 
provided  these  teachers  are  professionally  well 
qualified,  and  instruction  and  education  proceed 
with  less  noise  and  friction.  Very  often:  the  in- 
tercourse between  teachers  and  pupils  in  such 


164:  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

schools  is  permeated  with  the  spirit  of  confidence 
and  love. 

"  That  female  teachers  are  not  inferior  to  men 
in  the  faithful  discharge  of  duty,  that  they  are 
punctual  in  attendance,  thorough  in  daily  prepara- 
tion of  their  lessons,  and  equally  conscientious  in 
correcting  written  work  at" 'home,  ...  all  that  is 
not  disputed.  .  .  .  Great  weight  also  has  the  opinion 
of  the  Imperial  Medical  Commission,  .  .  .  which 
publishes  the  fact  that  the  women  are  not  inferior 
to  men  in  physical  endurance. 

"  Comparative  statistics  of  absence  of  male  and 
female  teachers  from  school  might  give  surprising 
results. 

"Now,  considering  that  there  are-  fifty  thou- 
sand elementary  teachers*  employed  in  Prussia, 
the  question  will  at  once  arise :  Are  they  really 
all  following  a  natural  calling  f  Are  they  all 
called?  Or  are  there  not,  on  the  contrary,  very 
many  among  them  who  have  either  no  talent  or 
no  inclination  for  their  profession,  or  perhaps  lack 
both?  Similar  conditions,  perhaps,  appear  among 
the  teaching  forces  in  the  secondary  institutions, 
tvhere  a  large  number  of  the  scientific  teachers, 
numbering  thousands,  are  employed,  so  that  here, 

\  *  Seventy-five  thousand  in  1886-'87,  according  to  the  official 
report. 


FAVORITISM  SHOWN  TO  MEN.  165 

too,  we  might  meet  many  who  exercise  a  weak  or 
even  baneful  influence  in  education  as  well  as  in 
instruction.  We  stand  here  face  to  face  with  facts 
and  institutions  which  can  not  be  more  preposter- 
ous. Because  male  teachers  who  are  fit  for  the 
profession  can  not  be  had  in  sufficient  number,  unfit 
ones  are  taken  to  fill  all  the  vacancies !  .  .  .  And 
yet,  women  might  be  had  in  whom  skill  and  talent 
for  teaching  and  educating  children  is  inborn — at 
least  as  many  as  are  found  among  men.  There  are 
thousands  of  useful  women  teachers  by  whom  the 
vacancies  might  be  filled ;  but  no,  they  are  excluded 
in  favor  of  useless  men,  and  that,  too,  from  girls' 
schools. 

"  This  revolting  injustice,  this  coarse  and  vulgar 
favoritism  shown  the  stronger  sex  may  have  been 
excusable  at  a  time  when  the  female  sex  had  not 
yet  given  tangible  proofs  of  its  fitness  for  the  teach- 
ing profession,  and  while  great  numbers  of  well- 
educated  and  cultured  young  ladies  were  not  as 
yet  obliged  by  dire  necessity  to  support  themselves 
in  some  way ;  but  since  their  usefulness  for  many 
years  has  been  proved  incontestably  in  a  number 
of  institutions  of  learning,  and  even  the  most  ob- 
stinate stupidity  begins  to  acknowledge  the  neces- 
sity of  self-support  on  the  part  of  many  women, 
both,  state  and  communities,  must  at  last  consent  to 


166  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

measure  both  sexes  by  the  same  standard  in  the 
question  at  issue.  ...  In  the  lower  grades  of  the 
elementary  schools,  in  which  no  doubt  boys  and 
girls  can  be  taught  simultaneously,  male  and  female 
teachers  should  both  be  employed.  Not  the  sex, 
but  the  serviceableness  should  decide  here.  In  the 
higher  grades  of  elementary  schools  the  sexes 
should  be  separated  more  than  is  done  at  present, 
and  the  girls  be  given  over  to  female  teachers  ex- 
clusively. In  all  the  classes  of  girls'  high  schools 
(or  girls'  academies,  or  whatever  the  name  of  these 
secondary  institutions  may  be)  female  teachers  are 
preferable,  and  the  employment  of  men,  even  in 
the  highest  classes,  should  not  be  tolerated.  Tal- 
ented men  now  teaching  there  may  find  employ- 
ment in  boys'  schools,  where  they  may  take  the 
place  of  unfit  teachers,  and  the  latter  make  them- 
selves useful  in  other  domains  of  labor.  .  .  . 

"  Such  an  increase  in  the  employment  of  women 
would  not  only  give  thousands  of  talented,  spirited 
young  ladies  who  are  obliged  to  support  them- 
selves, opportunities  to  find  an  occupation  suitable 
for  their  talents  and  powers,  but  it  would  unques- 
tionably improve  the  entire  system  of  instruction 
in  lower  and  higher  institutions  of  learning.  .  .  . 

"  But  there  are  other  occupations  in  which  the 
female  sex  is  fully  equal  to  the  male  sex ;  to  these 


WOMEN  IN  OTHER  FIELDS  OF  LABOR     167 

belongs  the  postal,  telegraph,  and  railroad  services. 
It  is  asserted,  though,  that  in  these  occupations 
women  liave  been  tried  many  times,  and  that  these 
trials  had  proved  them  unfit,  and  that  the  chiefs  of 
the  different  postal,  telegraph,  and  railroad  bureaus 
are  not  inclined  to  make  the  experiment  again. 
Should  this  be  true,  the  question  would  naturally 
arise  (and  it  arises  despite  the  great  and  well-known 
merits  which  these  men  have  earned  in  their  re- 
spective departments)  whether  these  experiments 
were  made  with  all  due  impartiality  and  without 
precipitation,  and  whether  these  high  officials  were 
not  influenced  by  prejudices  in  passing  judgment 
on  the  women.  ...  Or  are  the  women  in  France 
and  Belgium,  where  they  are  found  in  great  num- 
bers in  the  most  varied  positions  of  responsibility 
and  trust,  cleverer  and  more  trustworthy  than 
with  us? 

"If  in  previous  pages  the  assertion  has  been  re- 
peatedly made  that  certain  fields  of  human  activity 
might  gain  by  the  employment  of  female  labor,  we 
now  wish  to  express  the  conviction  that  improved 
education— and  through  that  improved  usefulness  of 
the  female  sex— would  enable  the  latter  to  participate 
in  the  great  civilizing  activity  of  our  time,  to  help 
in  liberating  mankind,  in  enlightening  it  in  regard 
to  religion  and  morality,  and  even  act  as  propelling 


168  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

forces  in  social  and  political  life.  .  .  .  The  serious 
as  well  as  the  minor  problems  of  civilization  and 
culture  are  becoming  more  numerous  and  compli- 
cated. Hitherto  only  half  the  human  race,  the 
male  sex,  has  worked  at  their  solution ;  hence  that 
solution  has  been  in  many  cases  insufficient  and 
one-sided.  The  time  has  come  in  which  the 
other  half,  equal  in  intellectual  power  and  sup- 
plementing the  former,  should  assist  in  solving 
them."  * 

Thanks  and  honor  to  the  man,  who  possesses 
ideality  enough  to  deny  himself  the  advantages  his 
sex  gives  him  to  do  homage  to  truth ! 

I  have  quoted  him  at  length  for  a  purpose.  A 
better  statement  of  the  case  can  not  be  offered,  and 
it  is  doubly  valuable  coming  from  a  man.  It  has 
cost  me  some  self-denial  not  to  quote  his  remarks 
concerning  the  last  point,  the  task  woman  could 
perform  in  civilization  and  culture.  But  it  may 
suffice  to  merely  call  attention  to  the  works  of 
Nohl,  which  in  every  part  deserve  the  most  care- 
ful consideration  on  account  of  their  clearness 
and  undaunted  love  of  truth,  for  which  their 
author  merits  the  highest  honor.  Nohl's  writings 
are  most  valuable,  especially  for  people  who  are 

*  Paedagogik  fuer  hoehere  Lehranstnlten,  Clemens  Nohl,  I 
Theil,  p.  749. 


MEN  GUILTY  OF  RETARDING  THE  CAUSE.  169 

interested  in  the  present  efforts  for  reform  in  edu- 
cation. * 

Though  it  can  not  be  denied,  leaving  some  few 
scattered  male  advocates  of  our  cause  out  of  consid- 
eration, that  the  men  in  general  are  guilty  of  re- 
tarding the  woman  question  in  Germany  ;  that  they 
frequently,  from  prejudice,  professional  jealousy, 
or  ignorance  and  indifference,  block  the  ways  the 
women  offer  to  walk,  it  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
equally  true  that  we  women  bear  a  great  deal  of 
the  guilt  ourselves.  The  sins  of  omission  and  com- 
mission of  many  married  women  have  been  men- 
tioned. It  is  reasonable  to  hope  that  the  near 
future  will  witness  an  improvement  in  that  direc- 
tion, since  the  present  generation  hears  the  moment- 
ous question  discussed  before  marrying,  and  perhaps 
learns  something  of  its  vital  importance  from  dire 
experience.  As  yet  it  is,  in  comparison  with  the 
population,  an  insignificant  number  of  German 
women  who  can  not  be  turned  away  from  their  ob- 
ject in  view.  Many  of  those  who  would  like  to  ac- 
complish something,  dislike  the  necessary  means,  or 
feel  satisfied  at  having  approached  the  goal  half- 


*  Until  recently,  three  parts  of  his  Paedagogik  have  appeared : 
Part  I.  Institutions  of  learning.  Part  II.  Methods  for  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  study.  Part  III.  Training  of  teachers  of 


170  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

way.  Some  are  silent  from  fear  of  finding  dis- 
pleasure among  the  men ;  but  lie  who  dislikes  to 
displease  will  never  effect  reforms. 

I  am  among  the  last  who  would  resent  a  want 
of  self-confidence  and  consistency  in  the  oppressed, 
timid  sex.*  Man  often  finds  it  difficult  to  think  out 
his  thoughts  in  all  their  consequences,  how  much 
more  woman  under  such  circumstances !  Time  will 
gradually  bring  a  change,  extend  the  horizon,  and 
strengthen  the  timid.  But  when  want  of  self-con- 
fidence or  short-sightedness  assumes  the  form  of  a 
public  protest  against  the  training  of  female  teach- 
ers, as  it  did  repeatedly  during  the  teachers'  con- 
gress in  Weimar  last  year,  the  interest  of  the  cause 
demands  that  it  be  resented.  Though  many  things, 
such  as  the  application  of  the  Biblical  word,  "  And 
he  shall  rule  over  thee,"  condemn  themselves.  This 
idea  has  found  its  proper  reply  in  contributions 
found  in  Die  Lehrerin  (The  Female  Teacher), 
edited  by  Mrs.  Loeper-IIousselle.  And  if  there 
are  really  female  teachers  who  still  consider  such 
thorough  training  as  I  demand  for  them  in  the 

*  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  this  timidity  goes  so  far  as  to  pre- 
vent an  immediate  reply  to  the  public  disparagement  of  our  sex 
that  took  place  during  the  meeting  of  the  congress  in  Eisenach, 
Oct.  1-4,  1888,  where  of  all  the  women  present  not  one  arose 
to  protest  energetically,  though  doubtless  all  felt  the  affront 
keenly. 


WOMANLINESS.  171 

foregoing  pages  objectionable  and  unnecessary,  they 
condemn  themselves  also,  despite  the  applause  it 
has  found  in  educational  journals. 

Also  the  protests  in  the  name  of  womanliness  do 
not  disturb  my  conscience.  Womanliness  1  Beau- 
tiful, maltreated  word  !  Oh,  how  much  does  it  sig- 
nify—  love,  confidence,  idealism,  courage  for  the 
greatest  sacrifice  and  greatness  of  soul !  And  how 
is  it  that  these  people  would  define  it?  As  pru- 
dishness  and  affectation ! 

If  women  shrink  from  the  unaccustomed  prob- 
lems which  our  time  offers,  I  shall  not  blame  them 
for  it,  but  those  who  are  unable  to  cope  with  them 
should  write,  if  write  they  must,  only  in  the  name 
of  their  own  incapacity,  and  not  make  remarks 
which  can  only  have  reference  to  the  education  of 
the  present  generation  of  women,  and  hence  only 
fortify  the  position  of  man.  I  am  glad  to  meet 
them  with  the  courageous  word  of  Helene  Adel- 
mann :  "  I  feel  that  if  I  were  allowed  to  con- 
centrate my  entire  energy  as  a  teacher  upon  one 
branch  I  could  cope  with  any  man.  If  there  is  a 
woman  who  does  not  feel  that  she  can  accomplish 
the  highest  and  best,  she  should  not  deny  others  the 
strength  to  do  it,  provided  they  remain  within 
the  limits  of  pure  womanliness."  Here  we  applaud. 

But  I  have  to  reply  to  another  accusation,  one 


172  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

which  was  raised  against  me  publicly.     I  have  been 
accused  of  want  of  gratitude. 

Gratitude  ?  Oh,  I  like  to  be  grateful ;  but  I  do 
not  quite  comprehend  for  what.  We  owe  every- 
thing to  man,  I  am  told.  If  we  were  to  count  up, 
many  items  might  be  placed  on  our  credit  page.  A 
woman's  care  and  unfathomable  love  surround  man 
from  the  cradle  to  his  grave ;  she  provides  his  com- 
forts and  the  leisure  he  needs  for  his  undisturbed  in- 
tellectual work.  From  the  beginning  of  the  world 
the  women  have  attended  to  the  wants  of  men,  have 
freed  them  from  annoying  material  cares,  have  done 
the  hardest  slave's  service  for  them  in  ancient  times, 
and  gone  through  the  life  of  martyrs  without  mur- 
muring. '  This  being  so,  we  are  obliged  to  view 
woman's  condition  historically.  How  did  that  con- 
dition arise?  Natural  inclination  does  not  suffice 
to  explain  it.  Ancient  history  reveals  such  a  fright- 
ful degree  of  barbarism  that  not  the  least  doubt 
can  be  entertained  of  the  truth  of  the  statement 
that  the  right  of  the  stronger  decided  the  position 
of  women.  "With  the  right  of  physical  strength 
man  forced  woman  to  render  services  as  he  pleased. 
But  he  gave  her  an  equivalent  in  form  of  support 
as  father,  husband,  brother,  or  guardian.  The  times 
were  so  barbaric  and  manners  so  brutal  that  we 
can  not  imagine  the  position  of  woman  in  those 


HISTORICAL  GUARDIANSHIP.  173 

ages  without  a  personal  protector  and  supporter. 
That  the  man  should  have  derived  the  right  of 
guardianship  from  his  duty  of  protection  and  sup- 
port was  quite  natural.  Unknown  were  reasons  of 
a  higher  kind  which  might  have  hindered  him  from 
exercising  this  right  of  guardianship  which  in  its  ori- 
gin was  nothing  but  the  right  of  the  stronger.  Yet 
it  is  plain,  and  quite  consistent  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  cause,  that  the  guardianship  should  cease 
with  the  disappearance  or  discontinuance  of  the 
support.  Now  if  at  present  a  great  number  of 
German  women  are  obliged  to  depend  upon  them- 
selves for  their  own  support,  it  seems  quite  unfair 
that  man,  who  has  ceased  to  be  their  support  and 
who  is  not  their  protector,  should  still  exercise 
guardianship  over  them  in  regard  to  their  educa- 
tion and  professional  activity.  This  "historical 
guardianship  "  has  resulted  in  hindering  the  women 
who  are  not  supported  and  protected  by  man  from 
supporting  themselves  in  a  way  corresponding  to 
their  desires  and  capacities.  He  prescribes  for  them 
an  education  as  he  sees  fit,  an  education  which  is 
entirely  incongruous  with  their  own  claims  and 
needs.  I  can  not  possibly  find  in  that  a  cause  for 
gratitude. 

But  willingly,  and  with  all  my  heart,  will  I  be 
grateful  to  those  men  who  help  the  women  gain 


174:  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

the  liberty  of  that  education  which  legal  and  ideal 
considerations  would  suggest.  The  starting  point 
of  woman's  present  position  was,  as  stated  before, 
man's  physical  strength.  Now,  in  the  same  propor- 
tion in  which  the  respect  for  physical  superiority 
recedes  and  respect  for  moral  qualities  increases,  in 
exactly  the  same  proportion  will  man  everywhere 
voluntarily  renounce  the  guardianship  so  intimately 
connected  with  physical  superiority,  for  nothing  ex- 
cept this  respect  can  induce  him  to  do  so.  And  I 
confidently  believe  that  the  German  women  deserve 
it  as  well  as  the  women  of  other  nations.  No  one  is 
more  zealous  in  praising  the  women  than  the  Ger- 
mans, from  Walter  von  der  Yogelweide  up  to  the 
present  day.  But  I  believe  the  time  has  come  to 
prove  this  respect  by  deeds.  The  boy,  when  grown 
to  manhood,  should  recollect  the  infinite  love  and 
care  which  his  mother  bestowed  upon  him;  he 
should  prove  his  gratitude  by  assisting  her  sex  to 
obtain  that  position  to  which  it  has  an  inborn  right. 
Woman,  I  should  think,  might  be  credited  now  with 
that  degree  of  intellectual  maturity  which  enables 
her  to  decide  what  is  good  for  herself.  And  if  she 
desires  more  intellectual  food,  more  efficacious  labor 
than  hitherto,  man  should  not  obstinately  refuse  it. 
If  a  tribe  of  savages  showed  the  degree  of  intelli- 
gence now  manifested  by  the  German  women,  would 


LUKEWARM  AND  HALF-HEARTED  WOMEN.    175 

not  the  men  with  great  willingness  open  their  uni- 
versities for  them  ?  Would  not  every  German  pro- 
fessor contribute  his  share  to  induce  the  "  cultiva- 
ble tribe "  (bildungsfahiyen  Stamm)  to  acquire  the 
highest  intellectual  culture  for  which  it  is  aspiring  ? 
Does  any  one  think  the  case  possible  that  this  tribe 
should  again  and  again  vainly  petition  for  admission 
to  European  culture  and  be  repulsed  with  derision 
and  disgrace  ?  Every  educated  man  would  declare 
it  despicable  narrow-mindedness,  and  consider  it  a 
burning  shame. 

Yet  exactly  the  same  thing  is  done  with  the 
German  women,  because  they  are  women ;  for  no 
other  reason.  Why,  then,  should  we  feel  such  deep 
gratitude  toward  the  German  men,  and  not  venture 
to  criticise  the  institutions  made  by  them  ? 

But  let  us  return  to  the  women. 

Though  during  the  public  discussion  of  the  wo- 
man question,  which  grows  more  and  more  urgent,  it 
is  found  that  there  are  some  women  in  Germany 
who  belong  to  the  lukewarm  and  half-hearted,  to  the 
short-sighted  and  timid,  and  that  the  co-operation  is 
wanting  which  has  led  to  excellent  results  in  other 
countries,  still  it  would  be  unjust  not  to  recognize 
gladly  that  on  the  other  hand  the  number  of  women 
is  steadily  increasing  who  are  independent  yet 
womanly  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  and  who  are 


176    HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

consistent  in  thought  and  action.  And  there  is  no 
doubt  that  these  women  will  in  the  course  of  time 
find  the  proper  appreciation  among  the  doubting 
and  timid  of  their  sex,  who  are  not  as  yet  aware  of 
their  own  strength.  In  that  the  pioneers  must  find 
comfort.  How  willingly,  how  gladly  one  is  a  pio- 
neer for  a  great  and  pure  cause  like  the  intellectual 
elevation  and  liberation  of  a  whole  sex.  This  joyful 
prospect  will  take  the  sting  out  of  the  depressing 
consciousness  that  this  pioneer  work  has  been  per- 
formed here  by  courageous  women  for  twenty-five 
years  without  the  great  results  achieved  in  other 
countries.  It  helps  one  forget  a  little,  too,  that  one 
is  personally  misjudged. 

But  it  has  been  thought  necessary  to  warn  the 
German  nation  to  beware  of  these  pioneers.  "  These 
women,"  it  is  said,  "  aim  at  a  total  revolution  of  the 
social  position  of  the  educated  woman." 

What  does  this  really  jmean  ?  Are  we  by  the 
term  social  position  to  understand  the  position  of 
woman  in  human  society  and  professional  life  in 
general  ?  Then  it  is  perfectly  correct.  We  are  try 
ing  with  the  aid  of  thorough-bred  gentlemen  to 
cause  a  change  in  the  social  position  of  woman.  We 
wish  to  secure  to  woman  the  same  liberty  for  her  in- 
tellectual education  that  man  has,  and  that  will  ne- 
cessitate a  dislocation  and  readjustment  in  profes- 


IMPROVED  SOCIAL  POSITION.  177 

sional  life  by  replacing  some  incapable  men  by  capa- 
ble women ;  for  the  question  of  capability  has  always 
been  placed  in  the  foreground  by  us,  since  it  alone 
can  decide  the  contest.  Hence  capable  men  need 
not  fear  anything.  A  warning,  such  as  that  alluded 
to,  would  only  be  a  consequence  of  premises  easily 
guessed.  But  if  by  the  term  social  position  the 
position  of  woman  in  relation  to  man,  that  is,  to  her 
husband,  is  understood,  nothing  need  be  feared  from 
a  higher  education  and  an  elevation  of  her  position 
as  wife  resulting  therefrom ;  for  the  position  of  the 
wife  in  regard  to  her  husband  is  not  at  all  depend- 
ent upon  his  superiority.  The  inner  superiority  is 
not  by  any  means  always  on  the  side  of  the  husband 
either ;  in  the  lower  strata  of  society,  where  the 
degree  of  school  education  is  equal,  it  is  not  even 
found  in  education.  If,  nevertheless,  woman  serves 
man  in  innumerable  ways,  makes  his  life  pleasant 
and  comfortable,  and  if  her  life  is  an  "eternal 
coming  and  going,  a  lifting  and  bearing,  a  working 
and  caring  for  others,"  it  is  because  love  and  the 
exigences  of  her  nature  impel  her  to  it ;  and  that 
will  always  be  so  whether  she  reads  Marlitt  or 
Sophocles  in  her  leisure  hours,  else  I  but  poorly 
understand  woman's  nature.  But  where  remnants 
of  that  ancient  oppression  are  still  practiced,  where 

to  woman  are  offered,  with  legal  sanction,  all  kinds 
12 


178  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

of  ignominies,  she  is  quite  right  to  attempt  to  find 
redress.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  she  will  find  the 
assistance  of  noble-spirited  men  who  will  secure  to 
her  the  legal  protection  needed  against  her  hus- 
band's abuse  of  power.  The  better  part  of  married 
life,  as  it  is  slowly  assuming  form  in  all  civilized 
countries,  is  based  upon  affection,  hence  is  safe 
from  all  attempts  at  emancipation.  The  attempts 
we  are  making  are  invariably  directed  toward  break- 
ing unjust  barriers  which  are  set  up  to  prevent 
woman  from  obtaining  intellectual  culture  and  in- 
creasing her  professional  capacity;  they  aie  not 
aimed  at  a  change  of  her  position  in  married  life. 
Only  coarse  people  will  try  to  escape  from  duties,  the 
fulfillment  of  which  the  woman's  position  necessi- 
tates, and  in  that  they  will  never  find  support  among 
true  women.  These  will  never  think  of  denying 
their  husbands  with  what  love  has  provided  him 
from  time  immemorial.  Only  the  men  must  not  be- 
lieve they  can  demand  as  a  tribute  due  their  alleged 
superiority  what  love  alone  can  give  and  will  give 
willingly,  plentifully,  and  forevermore. 

And  where  is  the  movement  to  end  ?  Exactly 
where  the  nature  of  the  case  and  the  nature  of  wo- 
man will  demand  that  it  should  end.  No  one  should 
think  of  being  able  to  arrest  it,  nor  need  any  one 
apprehend  dangers  where  Nature  is  simply  allowed 


IMPROVED  SOCIAL  POSITION.  179 

to  speak ;  she  will  erect  barriers  sufficiently  high  to 
check  anything  she  can  not  sanction.  After  woman 
has  been  "  declared  of  age "  the  future  will  in  all 
probability  take  this  form :  As  in  the  past,  the  ma- 
jority of  women  will  live  for  their  families  and  en- 
deavor to  make  home  happy  and  comfortable ;  Ka- 
ture  guarantees  that.  Later  on,  a  number  of  mar- 
ried women  whose  inclination  and  circumstances  in- 
duced them  in  youth  to  pursue  more  serious  studies 
than  is  now  the  custom — perhaps  with  the  view  of 
an  eventual  professional  application — will  (even  if 
this  necessity  does  not  arise)  have  reason  to  be  well 
satisfied  with  the  interest  their  intellectual  labor 
will  yield  them.  Their  deeper  comprehension  of 
interests  for  which  they  formerly  had  only  sympa- 
thies because  people  whom  they  loved  pursued 
them,  their  more  extended  horizon,  and  their  deeper 
insight  into  the  aims  and  aspirations  of  husband  and 
sons — all  that  can  only  benefit  the  home  life.  Un- 
married women  will  select  the  same  professional  oc- 
cupations they  now  select ;  but  a  few  more  will  be 
added  to  the  number  of  eligible  occupations  to  which 
those  women  will  aspire  who  are  capable  enough  to 
enter  into  competition  with  men,  and,  of  course, 
they  will  reach  the  same  satisfactory,  distinguished, 
and  lucrative  position  that  the  men  occupy  at 
present.  Among  the  learned  professions  the  medi- 


180  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

cal  and  teacher's  profession  will  be  chosen  by  wo- 
men. The  possibility  of  obtaining  a  secure  and 
lucrative  position  by  one's  own  strength  will  un- 
doubtedly prevent  many  marriages  which  nowa- 
days are  entered  into  from  fear  of  privation,  or  be- 
cause not  to  be  married  is  considered  a  disgrace — in 
other  words,  marriages  will  be  prevented  which  are 
based  on  immoral  foundations.  Hence,  looked  at 
from  this  side,  married  life  and  family  life  can  only 
gain.  The  fact  also  that  the  daughters  of  the 
house  would  in  school  be  under  the  guidance  and 
influence  of  women  exclusively  would  indirectly 
aid  family  life. 

Thus,  to  an  unprejudiced  eye,  the  future  appears 
not  as  the  caricature  of  a  world,  in  which  cigarettes 
and  torn  clothes  are  considered  attributes  of  woman. 
A  part  of  this  caricature  might,  however,  become 
reality  if  opposition  to  the  development  that  has 
become  necessary  is  continued  much  longer.  For 
the  longer  and  the  more  violently  anything  is  op- 
posed that  Nature  dictates,  the  more  objectionable 
and  hazardous  become  the  hybrid  forms  which 
the  misapplied  strength  causes  in  all  directions. 
The  female  life  in  Germany  is  a  healthy  one 
throughout  j  if,  however,  the  liberty  of  develop- 
.ment  that  has  become  so  necessary  is  denied  it,  the 
consequences  will  not  be  wanting.  They  will  be 


EMANCIPATION  A  GHOST.  181 

much  more  dangerous  than  the  consequences  of 
"  emancipation,"  a  word  that  has  become  a  veritable 
apparition.  Like  all  ghosts,  this  too  will  prove  a 
mere  phantom.  The  events  in  other  countries  have 
proved  this  clearly.  In  most  of  them  liberty  of  de- 
velopment has  been  granted  woman  after  some  con- 
tention, but  as  soon  as  the  tight  ended  the  unpleasant 
features  of  emancipation,  being  only  sequences  of 
unjustified  opposition,  disappeared.  A  fact  which 
is  very  striking  in  England  is  that  the  women  who 
stand  in  the  midst  of  the  movement  and  practice 
so-called  male  professions  are  thoroughly  womanly 
women.  No  doubt  in  Germany  the  strong  opposi- 
tion will  cause  occasional  unpleasant  results.  Up  to 
date  but  few  German  women  have  acquired  a  higher 
education  in  foreign  countries.  If  they  intend  to  ac- 
quire it  in  Germany  they  meet  with  the  greatest  ob- 
stacles ;  they  have  to  go  through  an  almost  exhaust- 
ing fight  with  ill-will  and  prejudices,  and  though  this 
does  not  always  injure  their  womanly  qualities,  in 
some  of  them  is  noticeable  an  indefinable  something 
which  savors  of  a  consciousness  of  their  exceptional 
position.  It  is  true  that  position  was  gained  by 
summoning  all  available  energy  and  by  removing 
many  obstacles.  (We  have  every  reason  to  be 
proud  of  the  representatives  of  our  sex  who  in  Ber- 
lin practice  so-called  male  professions.)  They  are 


182   HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

phenomena  and  feel  it.  The  battles  through  which 
they  passed  have  left  an  impression  on  their  charac- 
ters, and  their  conduct  shows  it.  Naturally,  this 
being  something  that  comes  to  the  surface,  it  is 
noticed,  and  the  opponents  of  the  woman's  move- 
ment make  good  use  of  the  fact.  That  is,  however, 
unavoidable  in  the  infancy  of  a  cause.  The  Ger- 
mans, for  instance,  are  at  present  conscious  of  being 
a  nation,  a  distinction  for  which  they  bitterly  fought, 
and  hence  are  tempted  to  some  exaggerations ;  like- 
wise, the  women  who  had  to  go  through,  and  victo- 
riously passed,  examinations  that  raised  them  to  the 
lofty  height  of  the  upper  ten  thousand  in  spirit,  are 
apt  to  show  it  a  little  in  their  conduct.  But  such 
emotions  will  soon  disappear  when  to  have  a  uni- 
versity education  ceases  to  be  an  exception.  If  we 
would  avoid  the  small-pox  we  must  not  shrink  from 
the  trifling  vaccination  fever.  If  we  want  to  pre- 
vent serious  social  injuries,  if  we  intend  to  leave 
unfilled  the  intellectual  chasm  that  now  separates 
the  world  of  man  from  the  world  of  woman  in  Ger- 
many and  makes  an  agreement  so  difficult,  occa- 
sional childish  conduct,  attributable  to  the  state  of 
tutelage  in  which  woman  had  been  left,  must  be 
taken  into  the  bargain.  But  those  who  speak  of 
serious  dangers  for  the  German  family  that  are 
alleged  to  arise  from  a  change  of  the  social  position 


A  MISREPRESENTATION.  183 

of  woman  do  not  know  woman  at  all,  or  if  they  do 
they  use  such  arguments  as  a  cloak  for  other  and 
meaner  motives. 

The  same  holds  true  with  those  who  point 
toward  serious  dangers  to  the  bodily  health  of  wo- 
man arising  from  an  extension  of  her  sphere  of 
activity.  The  Cologne  Gazette  (October  14,  1888) 
contains  this  passage :  "  In  Berlin  a  great  number  of 
weary,  gray,  old  women  of  scarcely  thirty  years 
creep  about  in  the  attempt  at  acquiring  a  man's 
education ;  all  vivacity  of  feeling,  all  womanly  emo- 
tions, and  physical  health  besides  has  left  them. 
Truly  educated  and  cultured  men  avoid  them,  un- 
educated ones  flee  them  [If  that  is  to  be  a  weighty 
argument  it  is  of  very  light  weight],  and  the  healthy 
natural  women  shun  their  society.  Thus  these  girls 
stand  like  hermaphrodites  between  the  two  sexes." 

At  first  reading,  one  is  inclined  to  laugh  over 
this  unmitigated  nonsense,  especially  when  one 
lives  in  Berlin  and  looks  in  vain  for  "creeping, 
weary,  old  women  of  scarcely  thirty."  But  no,  not 
quite  in  vain.  We  see  such  old  women ;  pale,  hol- 
low-chested sewing  girls  and  factory  hands,  poor 
working  women  leading  emaciated  children  by  the 
hand,  and  by  them  we  are  reminded  at  every  step 
of  an  unpaid  debt  of  society.  "We  also  see  rich 
women  who  while  away  their  days  in  fancy  pleas- 


184  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

ures,  women  whose  heads  are  empty  and  whose 
hearts  are  dead.  But  among  the  intellectually  hard- 
working women  I  personally  know  not  a  single  one 
who  could  be  classed  among  the  decrepit  old  wo- 
men. It  is  possible  that  there  are  a  few,  and  it 
would  be  astonishing  if  there  were  none  under  the 
present  circumstances.  And  then  the  reply  would 
suggest  itself,  why  should  not  a  woman  have  the 
right  to  ruin  her  health  in  pursuing  intellectual 
studies  or  devoting  herself  to  a  satisfying  and  re- 
munerative profession,  as  well  as  a  sewing  girl  or  a 
factory  hand,  or  a  woman  in  the  whirl  of  society  ? 
But  there  is  still  another  reply :  If  she  is  ruining 
her  health,  what  else  is  the  cause  but  the  fact,  that 
she  is  obliged  to  work  ten  times  harder  than  might 
be  necessary  because  the  assistance  oifered  to  men 
is  denied  her  ? 

If,  as  the  author  of  that  article  in  the  Cologne 
Gazette  says,  she  fills  her  head  with  facts  from  all 

•/      ' 

branches  of  science  without  ever  finding  the  con- 
necting link  in  any  one  science,  what  else  is  the 
cause  but  that  she  is  denied  assistance  and  limited 
by  uncertain  means?  How  difficult  it  is  to  find 
the  connecting  link,  even  when  such  assistance  is 
given,  is  shown  in  the  article  mentioned  above,  the 
author  of  which  is  incapable  of  analyzing  primary 
and  secondary  causes.  If  the  "  imbittered  woman," 


CONCLUSION.  185 

upon  whom  the  author  looks  down  with  the  feel- 
ing of  the  proverbial  Pharisee,  becomes  deeply  un- 
happy, it  is  not  owing  to  her  intellectual  aspira- 
tions, for  her  aspiration  is  as  high  and  as  pure  as 
— say,  as  that  of  man ;  but  it  is  owing  to  the  fact 
that  she  is  everywhere  rejected  with  her  claim  upon 
work,  useful  work;  not  even  for  the  education 
and  instruction  of  her  own  sex  is  she  taken  into 
consideration  in  earnest.  No  wonder  if  she  be- 
comes imbittered.  There  is  but  one  thing  which 
does  imbitter — vain  aspiration  for  work  and  use- 
fulness. 

All  of  us  whom  kind,  motherly  Nature  has 
equipped  with  tenacity  to  hold  our  ground  in  bat- 
tling with  adverse  circumstances,  who  stand  in  the 
midst  of  a  professional  life  that  fills  our  heart,  let 
us  never  cease  fighting  for  our  imbittered  sisters, 
upon  whom  only  men  without  education,  hence 
without  culture,  can  look  down  with  derision.  She 
who  wants  nothing  for  herself  may  demand  every- 
thing for  others. 

For  the  present  I  am  done  with  what  I  had  to 
say.  I  have  said  it  in  my  simple  way,  without 
much  circumlocution,  since  I  am  wanting  in  the 
power  of  framing  my  thoughts  in  rhetorical  fig- 
ures. I  have  only  this  desire— -that  my  words  be 
accepted  as  sincere  and  honest ;  they  certainly  are 


186  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE. 

meant  to  be  so.  And,  above  all,  I  should  like  to 
have  them  examined  without  prejudice.  I  know 
well  enough  that  those  who  have  cause  to  fear  a 
change,  not  feeling  themselves  able  to  cope  with 
it,  will  protest  with  all  their  weight  in  the  name  of 
the  "  good  olden  times,"  in  the  name  of  the  family, 
or,  perchance,  in  the  name  of  German  science ; 
but  I  appeal  to  the  sense  of  justice  and  sound  judg- 
ment of  all  independently  thinking  German  men. 
For  their  benefit,  I  repeat  Ludwig  Schwerin's 
words :  "  The  narrow  limit  within  which  the  so- 
called  weaker  sex  is  kept  is  the  result  of  prejudice 
inherited  from  our  forefathers;  it  is  human  ordi- 
nance, physiologically  and  psychologically  unfound- 
ed, a  mixture  of  heathenish-antique  and  Christian- 
scholastic  views  of  the  world.  Generation  after 
generation  passes  by  careless  and  indifferent  to  the 
wrong  done  to  woman.  That  which  in  woman  is 
noble  and  tender  can  never  be  injured  by  genuine, 
true  education  and  its  resultant,  the  highest  culture 
known." 


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LBCKV,  GREEN,  THIERS,  TAINE,  PRHSCOTT,  MOTLEY,  and  other  historians.  The  sub- 
jects extend  from  Themistocles  to  Wellington. 

"  Every  one  perusing  the  pages  of  the  historians  must  have  been  impressed  with 
the  graphic  and  singularly  penetrative  character  of  many  of  the  sketches  of  the  distin- 
guished persons  whose  doings  form  the  staple  of  history.  These  pen-portraits  often 
stand  out  from  the  narrative  with  luminous  and  vivid  effect,  the  writers  seeming  to  have 
concentrated  upon  them  all  their  powers  of  penetration  and  all  their  skill  in  graphic 
delineation.  Few  things  in  literature  are  marked  by  analysis  so  close,  discernment  so 
keen,  or  effects  so  brilliant  and  dramatic."  —  From  the  Preface. 


L 


IFE  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS,  de- 
scribed  from  Ancient  Monuments.  By  E.  GUHL  and  W. 
KONER.  Translated  from  the  third  German  edition  by  F. 
HUEFFER.  With  543  Illustrations.  8vo.  Cloth,  $2.50. 

"  The  result  of  careful  and  unwearied  research  in  every  nook  and  cranny  of  ancient 
learning.  Nowhere  else  can  the  student  find  so  many  facts  in  illustration  of  Greek 
and  Roman  methods  and  manners." — Dr.  C.  K.  Adams's  Manual  of  Historical 
Literature. 


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GARDEN'S  STOR  Y;  or,  Pleasures  and  Trials 
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Head  and  Tail  Pieces  by  Rhead.  I2mo.  Cloth  extra,  $1.50. 

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trained  cultivator  in  that  his  skill  in  garden  practice  is  guided  by  a  refined  aesthetic 
sensibility,  and  his  appreciation  of  what  is  beautiful  in  nature  is  healthy,  hearty,  and  < 
catholic.  His  record  of  the  garden  year,  as  we  have  said,  begins  with  the  earliest 
violet,  and  it  follows  the  season  through  until  the  witch-hazel  is  blossoming  on  the 
border  of  the  wintry  woods.  .  .  .  This  little  book  can  not  fail  to  give  pleasure  to  all 
who  take  a  genuine  interest  in  rural  life.  They  will  sympathize  with  most  of  the 
author's  robust  and  positive  judgments,  and  with  his  strong  aversions  as  well  as  his 
tender  attachments."—  The  Tribune,  New  York. 


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'HE  FOLK-LORE  OF  PLANTS.     By  T.  F.  THIS- 
ELTON  DYER,  M.  A.     I2mo.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

"The  Folk- Lore  of  Plants"  traces  the  superstitions  and  fancies  connected  with 
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in  plant  language,  etc.  The  author  is  an  eminent  English  botanist,  and  superin- 
tendent of  the  gardens  at  Kew. 

"  A  handsome  and  deeply  interesting  volume.  ...  In  all  respects  the  book  is 
excellent  Its  arrangement  is  simple  and  intelligible,  its  style  bright  and  alluring; 
authorities  are  cited  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  and  a  full  index  is  appended.  ...  To  all 
who  seek  an  introduction  to  one  of  the  most  attractive  branches  of  folk-lore,  this  de- 
lightful volume  may  be  warmly  commended."—  Notes  and  Queries. 


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the  present  volume,  being  a  collection  of  various  papers,  will  fully  sustain  bis  reputa- 
tion as  an  eminently  entertaining  and  suggestive  writer. 

"'Flowers  and  tlieir  Pedigrees,'  by  Grant  Allen,  with  many  illustrations,  is  not 
merely  a  description  of  British  wild  flowers,  but  a  discussion  of  why  they  are,  what 
they  are,  and  how  they  come  to  be  so ;  in  other  words,  a  scientific  study  of  the  migra- 
tion and  transformation  of  plants,  illustrated  by  the  daisy,  the  strawberry,  the  cleavers, 
wheat,  the  mountain  tulip,  the  cuckoo-pint,  and  a  few  others.  The  study  is  a  delight- 
ful one,  and  the  book  is  fascinating  to  any  one  who  has  either  love  for  flowers  or  curi. 
osity  about  them." — Hartford  Courant. 


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DECOLLECTIONS  OF   THE  COURT  OF  THE 
•/V     TUILERIES.     By  MADAME  CARETTE,  Lady-of-Honor  to  the 
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The  inside  view  which  these  Recollections  give  of  the  Court  of  Louis 
Napoleon  is  fresh  and  of  great  interest. 

"  We  advise  every  one  who  admires  good  work  to  buy  and  read  it." — London 
Morning  Post. 

MEMOIRS    OF    MADAME    DE    REMUS  AT. 
J.VJ.      1802-1808.     Edited  by  her  Grandson,  PAUL  DE  REMUSAT, 
Senator.     3  volumes,  crown  8vo.     Half  bound,  $2.25. 

"  Notwithstanding  the  enormous  library  of  works  relating  to  Napoleon,  we  know 
of  none  which  cover  precisely  the  ground  of  these  Memoirs.  Madame  de  Re'musat 
was  not  only  lady-in-waiting  to  Josephine  during  the  eventful  years  1802-1808,  but 
was  her  intimate  friend  and  trusted  confidante.  Thus  we  get  a  view  of  the  daily  life 
of  Bonaparte  and  his  wife,  and  the  terms  on  which  they  lived,  not  elsewhere  to  be 
found."— N.  Y.  Mail. 

"  These  Memoirs  are  not  only  a  repository  of  anecdotes  and  of  portraits  sketched 
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and  political  questions  are  remarkable  for  weight  and  penetration." — New  York  Sun. 


A 


SELECTION  FROM  THE  LETTERS  OF 
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of  Madame  de  Remusat "  has  induced  the  publishers  to  issue  the  famous 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Duchess  d'Abrantes,"  which  have  hitherto  appeared  in  a 
costly  octavo  edition,  in  a  much  cheaper  form,  and  in  a  style  to  correspond 
with  De  Remusat.  This  work  will  be  likely  now  to  be  read  with  awakened 
interest,  especially  as  it  presents  a  much  more  favorable  portrait  of  the  great 
Corsican  than  that  limned  by  Madame  de  Remusat,  and  supplies  many  valu- 
able and  interesting  details  respecting  the  Court  and  Family  of  Napoleon, 
which  are  found  in  no  other  work. 


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DECENT  ECONOMIC  CHANGES,  and  their  Ef~ 

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these  papers  have  been  in  great  part  rewritten  by  the  author,  and  brought  down  to  the 
latest  date,  and  are  now  presented  in  one  convenient  volume. 

A  STUDY  OF  MEXICO.     By  DAVID  A.  WELLS. 

•*^*       Reprinted,   with    Additions,    from    "The     Popular     Science 

Monthly."  I2mo.  Cloth,  $1.00;  paper,  50  cents. 
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resources  and  productions  of  Mexico." — From  the  Preface. 

''THINGS    NOT    GENERALLY    KNOWN;    A 

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/i ROUND  AND  ABOUT  SOUTH  AMERICA: 

•**-    Twenty  Months  of  Quest  and  Query.      By  FRANK  VINCENT, 

author  of  "  The  Land  of  the  White  Elephant,"  etc.    With  Maps, 

Plans,  and  54   full-page    Illustrations.      8vo,  xxiv-473  pages. 

Ornamental  cloth,  $5.00. 

No  former  traveler  has  made  so  comprehensive  and  thorough  a  tour  of  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  America  as  did  Mr.  Vincent.  He  visited  every  capital,  chief  city,  and 
i  nportant  seaport,  made  several  expeditions  into  the  interior  of  Brazil  and  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  and  ascended  the  Parand,  Paraguay,  Amazon,  Orinoco,  and  Magdalena 
Rivers;  he  visited  the  crater  of  Pichinchas,  16,000  feet  above  the  sea-level;  he  ex- 
plored falls  in  the  center  of  the  continent,  which,  though  meriting  the  title  of  "Niagara 
of  South  America,"  are  all  but  unknown  to  the  outside  world ;  he  spent  months  in  the 
picturesque  capital  of  Rio  Janeiro;  he  visited  the  coffee  districts,  studied  the  slaves, 
descended  the  gold-mines,  viewed  the  greatest  rapids  of  the  globe,  entered  the  isolated 
Guianas,  and  so  on. 

TDRAZIL:     Its    Condition    and  Prospects.       By  C.  C. 
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Government,  during  which  period  I  made  a  few  journeys  into  the  interior." — Front 
the  Preface. 


F 


'IVE  THOUSAND  MILES  IN  A  SLEDGE:  A 

Mid-  Winter  Journey  across  Siberia.     By  LIONEL  F.  COWING. 
With  Map  and  30  Illustrations  in  Text.     I2mo.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

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the  scant  literature  on  a  singularly  interesting  country."  —  Courier. 


Travels   and  Investigations   in  the  "  Midale 
V-'      Kingdom"      A    Study   of    its    Civilization    and    Possibilities. 
With  a  Glance  at  Japan.    By  JAMES  HARRISON  WILSON,  late 
Major-General   United   States  Volunteers  and   Brevet   Major- 
General  United  States  Army.     I2mo.     Cloth,  $1.75. 

"  The  book  presents  China  and  Japan  in  all  these  Aspects  ;  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  people  ;  the  institutions,  tendencies,  and  social  ideas  ;  the  government  and 
leading  men."  —  Boston  Traveller, 


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X 


11  uAiviAL  SCHOOL, 


r .  *  MFORNT  • 


,\  r- 


IW.JAN2  31998 


REPD  PHYS.  LIB. 


Biomedical  Librai 
APR  0  7  1992 


Education 
Library 

LC 

1567 
L26 


UCLA-ED/PSYCH  Library 

LC1567L26 


L  005  613  169  1 


DC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
II 


A     001  100  185     6 


